University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Theses (Historic Preservation) Graduate Program in Historic Preservation January 2005 Interpreting Human Rights Tragedies: A Comparison of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Manzanar National Historic Site Megan Venno University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses Venno, Megan, "Interpreting Human Rights Tragedies: A Comparison of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Manzanar National Historic Site" (2005). Theses (Historic Preservation). 43. https://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/43 Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Historic Preservation 2005. Advisor: David Hollenberg This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/43 For more information, please contact repository@pobox.upenn.edu.
Interpreting Human Rights Tragedies: A Comparison of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Manzanar National Historic Site Comments Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Historic Preservation 2005. Advisor: David Hollenberg This thesis or dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/hp_theses/43
INTERPRETINGHUMANRIGHTSTRAGEDIES:ACOMPARISONOF THEUNITEDSTATESHOLOCAUSTMEMORIALMUSEUMAND MANZANARNATIONALHISTORICSITE MeganVenno ATHESIS in HistoricPreservation PresentedtotheFacultiesoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniain PartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeof MASTEROFSCIENCEINHISTORICPRESERVATION 2005 AdvisorReader DavidHollenberg GailCaskeyWinkler LecturerinHistoricPreservation LecturerinHistoricPreservation ProgramChair FrankG.Matero ProfessorofArchitecture
Acknowledgments IwouldliketothankthestaffattheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorial MuseumandatManzanarNationalHistoricSiteforgivingtheirtimeand information.inparticular,iappreciatetheassistanceoffrankhays, SuperintendentofManzanarNationalHistoricSite,andthelibrariansatthe UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumLibraryandArchives. Iwouldalsoliketothankmyadvisor,DavidHollenberg,forhisguidance throughoutthisprocess,aswellasmyreader,gailcaskeywinkler,forher insightfulcomments. Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyfamilyfortheirsupportand encouragement. ii
TableofContents ListofFigures...iv ChapterOne:Introduction... 1 Chapter Two: Heritage Interpretation... 8 ChapterThree:TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum... 23 ChapterFour:ManzanarNationalHistoricSite... 49 Conclusion...73 Bibliography... 117 Index... 129 iii
ListofFigures Figure1:GypsyartifactsfromCzechoslovakia..76 Figure2:EntrancetotheHolocaustMuseumfrom14thStreet..77 Figure3:GroundflooradjacenttotheHallofWitness...78 Figure4:ComputermonitorimagesfromtheWexnerLearningCenter 79 Figure5:TheHallofRemembrance.80 Figure6:StaircaseintheHallofWitness...81 Figure7:JapaneseAmericanNationalMuseum 82 Figure8:MuseumofJewishHeritageALivingMemorialtotheHolocaust. DavidSunberg.83 Figure9:I.D.cardswithstoriesofHolocaustvictimsandsurvivors, distributedattheentranceofthepermanentexhibition...84 Figure10:PhotographatthebeginningofthepermanentexhibitofAmerican soldiersviewingcharredcorpsesatohrdrufconcentrationcamp...85 Figure11:Anexhibitondisplacedpersonsfollowingthewarinthe permanentexhibition 86 Figure12:ImagesfromPoland,executionofapriest...87 Figure13:ExhibitsaboutthebeginningsofNaziruleinGermany...88 Figure14:ReconstructedbarracksfromAuschwitz...89 Figure15:ShoesfromvictimsoftheMajdanekConcentrationCamp...90 iv
Figure16:RailwaycarusedtotransportJewstoconcentrationcamps..91 Figure17:ReplicaofacrematoriuminMauthausenConcentrationCamp...92 Figure18:TowerofFacesfromtheYaffaEliachCollection..93 Figure19:HumanhairfromAuschwitzConcentrationCamp 94 Figure20:DanishboatusedtosmuggleJewstoSweden. 95 Figure21:Specialexhibition AssignmentRescue:TheStoryofVarianFry andtheemergencyrescuecommittee.. 96 Figure22:Specialexhibition AssignmentRescue:TheStoryofVarianFry andtheemergencyrescuecommittee...97 Figure23:Specialexhibition AssignmentRescue:TheStoryofVarianFry andtheemergencyrescuecommittee.......98 Figure24:Theexhibition RemembertheChildren:Daniel sstory....99 Figure25:Theexhibition RemembertheChildren:Daniel sstory....100 Figure26:RemainsofManzanarNationalHistoricSite.March2005....101 Figure27:RemainsofinternmentcampatManzanarNationalHistoricSite March2005...102 Figure28:Reconstructedguardtowerlocatedininterpretivecenter.March 2005. 103 Figure29:Cotusedbyinterneesininterpretivecenter.March2005...104 v
Figure30:WaysideexhibitatsitewhereCatholicChurchwaslocated.March 2005.105 Figure31:PlaquereferringtoManzanarasa concentrationcamp atentrance. March2005....106 Figure32:Exhibitininterpretivecenterexplainingterminologiesusedto describemanzanar.march2005...107 Figure33:ReconstructedsignatentrancetoManzanar.March2005..108 Figure34:Rehabilitatedsentrypostatentrancetocamp.March2005 109 Figure35:Theonlyremainingstructurefromtheinternmentcamp,the auditorium,nowservesastheinterpretivecenter.march2005.....110 Figure36:ArtifactsfromearlysettlerstoOwensValley.March2005... 111 Figure37:ScalemodelofManzanarJapaneseInternmentCamp.March2005.112 Figure38:ListofnamesofpeopleinternedatManzanar.March2005...113 Figure39:FlagsfromalltenJapaneseInternmentCamps.March2005.114 Figure40:UniformofJapanesesoldierwhoservedinWorldWarII.March 2005 115 Figure41:ExhibitaboutterrorismintheUnitedStates.March2005.. 116 vi
ChapterOne:Introduction Thesenseofplaceatahistoricsiteplaysavitalroleinvisitorexperience thatcannotbeduplicatedinamuseumsetting.museumsmustthereforeuse differenttechniquesinordertoallowvisitorstoconnectwiththeeventbeing interpreted.ontheotherhand,museumshavecompletecontroloverthevisitor experience,andapowerunavailabletohistoricsitemanagers.however,historic sitesfrequentlyhaveinterpretivecenters,andmuseumsoftenseektoincorporate elementsofhistoricsitesintheirinterpretiveplans.thisstudyseeksto determinethedifferencesbetweeninterpretationathistoricsitestheir implicationforinterpretersandmuseumsandtheirimplicationforinterpreters byexaminingtheunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseumandmanzanar NationalHistoricSite,aswellasothermuseumandhistoricsiteswithsimilar agendas. Thelasthalfofthetwentiethcenturybroughttheterm interpretation to theforefrontofthehistoricpreservationfield.thepracticeofheritage interpretationhasexistedathistoricsitesandmuseumssincetheirinception,but FreemanTilden s InterpretingOurHeritage 1 madethetermcommonplaceinthe historicpreservationfield.itisacomponentofhistoricpreservationthataffects 1 Interpretation:Aneducationalactivitywhichaimstorevealmeaningsandrelationships throughtheuseoforiginalobjects,byfirsthandexperience,andbyillustrativemedia,ratherthan 1
themostvitalaspectofinterpretedhistoricsitesandmuseums:thevisitor.itis importanttonotethatinterpretationisnotalwayspracticedinthepreservation field;itisoftenleftoutaltogether.therolethatinterpretationplaysinthevisitor experienceiscrucialtohisorherknowledgeandunderstandingofthesite. Sitesfocusingoncivilandhumanrightsarerelativelynew,andtherefore theinterpretationofthesesitesisoftenmorecreativethanat typical historic sitesandmuseums.staffatsitesinterpretingcivilandhumanrightsstoriesneed tobalancebetweeneducatingthevisitor,oftenusingpowerfulandgraphic information,andturningthemoff.thestudyofthesesiteshasprovidedinsight intotheinterpretivepracticesusedtoday. Muchhaschangedinthehalfcenturysince InterpretingOurHeritage waspublishedin1957.historicsitesandmuseumsnolongercommemorate onlytheheroicandcelebratedaspectsofourpast,buthavealsobegunto acknowledgethedarkerandmoreuncomfortablechaptersinourhistory.for interpretationtobesuccessful,itmustadaptandconformtothesitesandthe storiesthatarebeingtold.itmustalsobeflexibleenoughtoadapttoevolving knowledgeandviewpoints,whichfrequentlychangewithfuturegenerations. Additionally,differenttechniquesmustbeusedwheninterpretingmuseumsand historicsiteswheretheeventbeinginterpretedactuallytookplace.museums simplytocommunicatefactualinformation.,freemantilden,interpretingourheritage(chapel Hill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1957),7. 2
mustrelyheavilyonartifactstotellthestory,whilehistoricsitescanusethesite itselftoconveywhattookplace.twopropertiesthatsuccessfullyinterpret eventswithadarkerhistoryaretheunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseum andmanzanarnationalhistoricsite. TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseuminWashington,DCand ManzanarJapaneseInternmentCampineasternCalifornia,whichisnowa historicsiterunbythenationalparkservice,aretwopropertiesinterpreting similarstoriesindifferentways.eachdealswiththeoppressionofagroupof peoplebasedonraceorethnicity,arelativelynewformofhistoricsite.each dealswithrelativelyrecentevents,enablingthevoiceof thesurvivor tobe heardbysitemanagers,avoicethatmaytakeprecedenceoverthewayinwhich sitemanagersmighttointerpretthespace.inbothsituations,theeventbeing commemoratedtookplaceintherecentpast,andmanyofthevictimsarestill alive.additionally,eachofthesesiteshasamissionthatshapesthewayin whichinterpretivedecisionsaremade. Thisresearchwillalsohelptoachieveabetterunderstandingofhow interpretationshapesthemessageofthesite.itisimportanttonotethatthe conclusionsdrawncanbeappliedtoanyhistoricsiteandmuseum;manzanar NationalHistoricSiteandtheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumwere chosentonarrowthescopeofresearch.however,thefocusonhumanrights 3
doesaffectsomeaspectsofhowthesesitesareinterpreted.whileacomparison ofthesesitesandeventswilldemonstratetheirsimilarities,itwillalsohighlight thedifferencesbetweenbothmuseumsandhistoricsitesandtheeventsbeing commemorated.thefactthattheholocaustdidnottakeplaceonamericansoil factoredgreatlyintothecuratorialdecisionsmadeaboutinterpretationatthe HolocaustMuseum,whileinterpretersatManzanarhadadifferentchallengein beingphysicallyatthesite,buthavingvirtuallynoremainingbuiltenvironment tointerpret.additionally,whilebothgroupsofpeopleweretargetedbecauseof religiousandracialfactors,thestoryofgenocidebeingtoldattheholocaust Museumhasadifferentimpactthanthestoryofracialfearsresultinginthe Japaneseinterment. ChapterTwoexaminesinterpretationatmuseumsandhistoricsitesand whyitisimportantinthefieldofhistoricpreservation.itwillfocusonfreeman Tilden sprinciplesofinterpretationandtheirchangingapplicationashistoric sitesandmuseumsbegintointerpretdarkerperiodsinhistory.thischapterwill alsoaddresshowsurvivorexpectationshavehadasignificantinfluenceover howsitesaremanagedandhowinterpretativedecisionsaremade.theissueof theroleofmuseumsinthefieldofhistoricpreservationisalsoimportant. Thoughthebuildingitselfisnothistoric,ithouseshistoricartifacts. 4
Additionally,museumsareincreasinglybeingusedathistoricsitesasan interpretivetool,whichisthecaseatmanzanarnationalhistoricsite. ChapterThreefocusesontheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum. Themuseum,locatedashortdistancefromtheMallinWashingtonD.C.,opened in1993tonearlyuniversalpraise.itisoneofthemostpopulartourist destinationsinwashington,d.c.,drawingnearly20millionvisitorssinceits opening.thischapterwilladdressitsinterpretationoftheholocaust,anevent thatdidnothappenonthesite,oronunitedstatessoil.themuseum ssocial agenda,whichplaysanimportantroleininterpretivedecisions,willalsobe discussed.onemaindifferencebetweenamuseumandahistoricsiteisthe controlledenvironmentinwhichamuseumishoused.thearchitectofa museumbuildingmakesconsciousdecisionsaboutthedesignofthebuilding thathaveadirectimpactonthevisitorexperience.museumsarecreatedto shapethevisitorexperience,usingeverythingfromthearchitectureofthe buildingtothelighting. Thischapterwillalsobrieflyexamineothermuseumsthatinterpret similarevents.themuseumofjewishheritagealivingmemorialtothe HolocaustinNewYorkCity,TheSimonWiesenthalCenterandMuseumof ToleranceinLosAngeles,andtheJapaneseAmericanNationalMuseuminLos AngelesallfocusonhumanrightsanddirectlyexploreeithertheHolocaustor 5
thejapaneseamericaninternment.theexaminationofthesesiteswillfurther exploretheinterpretivetechniquesusedatmuseums. TheFourthChapterexaminestheJapaneseAmericanintermentcamp Manzanar.Thischapterfocusesontheinterpretationofahistoricsiteas comparedtoamuseum.manzanar,apubliclyownedandmanagedsite,has facedparticularconstraintsthatarenotimposedattheunitedstatesholocaust MemorialMuseum,whichispartiallyfederallyfunded,butisrunprivately.Site managersatmanzanarmustfollowguidelinessetforthbythenationalpark Service,andtheymustbesensitiveto,ifnotguidedby,publicopinionaboutthe managementofthesite,somethingthatisnotnecessarilythecaseatthe HolocaustMuseum.ThecouncilattheHolocaustMuseumhadthelibertyof allowingcertaingroupstoprovideinputintotheplanningprocess,whilethe staffatmanzanarhavetobemoreneutralwhenmakinginterpretivedecisions. Manzanar,aformerJapaneseInternmentCampusedduringWorldWar II,isinterpretingashamefulpieceofAmerica spast,ablatantrestrictionof people scivilrights.manzanarhasastrongsenseofplace,buthasposedan interpretivechallengebecausemostofthebuildingsweredestroyedwhenthe campwasclosedattheendofworldwarii.thishasledtotheissueof reconstructionatthesite.thesamesituationoccurredineuropeattheendof thesecondworldwar.thegermansdisassembledmanycomponentsofthe 6
concentrationcamps,butdecidedtorebuildthemasaneducationaltool.an interpretivecenterwasalsorecentlyopenedatmanzanar,whichcontinuesthe trendofhistoricsitesinaddingamuseumelementtotheirinterpretiveprogram. Thischapterwillalsobrieflyexploretheinterpretivetechniquesusedat thewomen srightsnationalhistoricpark,andthelowereastsidetenement MuseumincomparisontotheinterpretivepracticesusedatManzanarNational HistoricSite. Bothcasestudieswillalsoaddresstheadministrativesituation,which oftenhasadirectroleinhowdecisionsaremade.inthecaseofboththe HolocaustMuseumandManzanar,survivorshadimportantinfluenceon interpretiveprogrammingresults. Thefinalchapterwillpresenttheconclusionsdrawnfromanevaluation oftheinterpretationofeachofthesesites.itwillalsoincludeasummaryofthe conclusionsthathavebeendrawninpreviouschapters. 7
ChapterTwo:HeritageInterpretation Thischapterwillexaminetheemergingrolethatinterpretationhasplayed inthefieldofhistoricpreservation.thisincludesthewaysinwhich interpretationhasadaptedtoaccommodatesiteswithdifficulthistories, sometimesknownassitesofsocialconscience. Sincetheinceptionofhistoricsitesandmuseums,interpretationhasbeen constantlyevolving.however,withthepublicationoffreemantilden sbook InterpretingOurHeritagein1957,interpretationbegantobeacknowledgedasan assettothehistoricpreservationfield.intilden swords, Through interpretation,understanding;throughunderstanding,appreciation;through appreciation,protection. 2 Thismantrahasbeenechoedathistoricsitesand museumseversince.interpretationhasbeenusedasameanstoestablisha connectionwiththevisitors,andenrichtheirunderstanding. InterpretingOurHeritagewaswrittenatatimewhenhistoricsitesand museumstypicallymemorializedheroicpeopleandevents.aspaula.shackel statedinhisbookmemoryinblackandwhite:race,commemoration,andthepost BellumLandscape: For the first fifty years or so after Mount Vernon was saved, the preservationofplacewaslimitedlargelytothehomesoffamous 2 Tilden,InterpretingOurHeritage,38. 8
Americans:presidents,politicians,andpatriotsallmen,allwhite. Indeed, until the second half of the twentieth century, preserved placesreflectedaverylimitedsliceoftheamericandemographic landscape. This limited view of the American past or, more specifically,whatwasimportanttorememberabouttheamerican past, was also largely in keeping with the manner in which American history was taught and studied in high schools and colleges and universities throughout the country.beginning in the 1960s, this country s sense of its history began to change as it becamemoreinclusive.thisexpandedvisionofthepastaddedthe historicalvoicesofwomen,minorities,andlabortotheunfolding dramaofamericanhistory. 3 Wheninterpretingsitesthatfocusoncivilorhumanrightsissues,thesubject matterisoftendifficultforthevisitorandmustbepresentedinawaythat educatestheviewerwithoutoverwhelming.thestaffatthesesitesmuststrikea balancesothattheemotionalcontentofthestorydoesnotoverwhelmthevisitor, andensurethatthesitedoesnotbecomeatouristattractionsolelybecauseofthe sensationalcontentofthematerialbeingdisplayed.asjohnlennonand MalcolmFoleycontend, Horroranddeathhavebecomeestablished commodities,onsaletotouristswhohaveanenduringappetiteforthedarkest elementsofhumanhistory. 4 Tilden sprincipleslaythegroundworkfor heritageinterpretationaswepracticeittoday: 3 PaulA.Shackel,MemoryinBlackandWhite:Race,Commemoration,andthePostBellumLandscape (Landham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.,2003),xi. 4 JohnLennonandMalcolmFoley,DarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathandDisaster(London: Continuum,2000),58. 9
Anyinterpretationthatdoesnotsomehowrelatewhatis being displayed or described to something within the personalityorexperienceofthevisitorwillbesterile. Information,assuch,isnotInterpretation.Interpretation is revelation based upon information. But they are entirely different things. However, all interpretation includesinformation. Interpretation is an art, which combines many arts, whetherthematerialspresentedarescientific,historical, orarchitectural.anyartisinsomedegreeteachable. The chief aim of Interpretation is not instruction, but provocation. Interpretationshouldaimtopresentawholeratherthan a part, and must address itself to the whole man rather thananyphase. Interpretationaddressedtochildren(say,uptotheageof twelve) should not be a dilution of the presentation to adults, but should follow a fundamentally different approach. To be at its best it will require a separate program. 5 WhileTilden ssixprinciplesarethebasisforinterpretingmosthistoricsitesand museums,theymustbemodifiedwheninterpretingsitesofuncomfortable history. Interpretationofhistoricsitesandmuseumshasgraduallyadopteda morecomplexapproachbecause heritagesitesandmuseumsarenotnecessarily justplacesforthereconstructionofmemories,butalsosettingswherevisitors 5 Tilden,InterpretingOurHeritage,9. 10
cometonegotiateculturalmeaning. 6 Nolongercontenttosimplydisplay objects,manymuseumsandsitestodayhavespecificmessagesthattheyrelayto theaudiencethroughavarietyofinterpretivetools.inthecaseoftheholocaust Museum,partofthemissionistoinsuresuchaneventneverhappensagain. AccordingtoHarveyMeyerhoff,pastChairmanoftheUSHolocaustMemorial Council, thisbuildingtellsthestoryofeventsthathumaneyesshouldnever haveseenonce,buthavingseen,mustneverbeforgotten Itisnotsufficientto rememberthepast.wemustlearnfromit. 7 Inordertosupplythevisitorwiththeinformationtounderstandthe missionstatement,sitesandmuseumsuseanarrayofinterpretivetools.as authorgeorgeb.robinsonstated, Goodinterpretation,likegoodeducation,is bothcognitiveandaffective.itisafragileunionofartandscience.anyattempt toassessitseffectsmustbeconsideredinlightofthedisparatenaturesofthose twopursuits. 8 Thisunionmustallowforarangeoftoolstoeffectivelytellthe story.athistoricsites,itisincreasinglycommontofindaninterpretivecenter alongwiththeactualhistoricfabric. 6 DavidL.Uzzell, Interpretingourheritage:atheoreticalinterpretation incontemporaryissues inheritageandenvironmentalinterpretation,ed.daviduzzellandroyballantyne(london:the StationaryOffice,1998),16. 7 UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumwebsite,www.ushmm.org. 8 GeorgeB.Robinson, JudgmentoftheChild:ABriefPolemic, ininterpretiveviews:opinionson EvaluatingInterpretationintheNationalParkService,ed.GaryMachlis(WashingtonD.C.:National ParksandConservationAssociation,1986),51. 11
ThebeginningofthepreservationmovementintheUnitedStatesis1859, theyearmountvernonwassavedfromdeveloperswishingtoturnitintoa hotel.themovementgainedmomentumthroughoutthe1880 sand1890 s, whenupperclassmenandwomenestablishedancestralsocietiesdedicatedto savingoldbuildings,preservingbattlefieldsites,anderectingshrinesand monuments.beginningwithmountvernon,museumsenshriningheroicfigures fromamericanhistorybecamepopularsitesthatledtoillustratingwaysoflife duringacertaintimeperiod,suchascolonialwilliamsburginvirginiaandold SturbridgeVillageinMassachusetts. 9 CharlesWillsonPealecreatedoneofthe firstmuseumstohouseartifactsintheunitedstates.itcontainedanumberof NativeAmericanrelics,waxworkdummies,andspecimensofnaturalhistory. Pealefacedthreequestionsthatallsubsequenthistorymuseumswouldface: whattocollect,howtodisplayit,andhowtoteach. 10 Museumscontinuedto evolve,withmorepreciseplanninggoingintointerpretiveexhibits. Thechangesthattookplaceinmuseumswerereflectiveoflargersocial andpoliticaldevelopments.bythemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,agrowing groupofpeople,includingsocialscientists,architecturalcritics,psychologists 9 MichaelWallace, VisitingthePast:HistoryMuseumsintheUnitedStates, inpresentingthe Past:EssaysonHistoryandthePublic,eds.SusanPorterBenson,StephenBrier,andRoy Rosenzweig(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,1986),139149. 10 GaryKulik, DesigningthePast:HistoryMuseumExhibitionsfromPealetothePresent, in HistoryMuseumsintheUnitedStates,eds.WarrenLeonandRoyRosenzweig(Chicago: UniversityofIllinoisPress,1989),3. 12
andjournalists,concernedwiththedemolitionof material,cultural,and historicalfabric 11 throughoutthecountry,arguedthattearingdownhistorical fabric deniedhumanneedsforhistoricalconnectedness;suburbsandprojects alikeunderminedindividualandsocialidentitiesbyrippingpeopleofout history. 12 Thesesamepeoplearguedthathistorymuseumsdisplayedasimilar onedimensionalityandhistoricaldetachment.inresponse,grassroots museumsspranguparoundthecountrytopreservelocalheritages. Bythe1960 smuseumsalsobegantoemployexhibitdesigners,in additiontothecuratorsandhistoriansalreadyonstaff.theybegantouse methodsotherthanartifactstotellthestory,andthestorybegantodevelopinto somethingmoreversatile. Theinterpretiveexhibitwould,bythe1980s,be theprincipalformfortheexpressionofideasinhistorymuseums,and exhibitionsandinterpretiveprogramsinfluencedbythenewsocialhistory wouldcometoexertapowerfulpresencefromoaklandtowilliamsburg. 13 Exhibitionsbegantofeatureavarietyoftoolsincludingphotographs,video, audio,andfirstpersonaccounts.ratherthanbeingdisplayedinsolelyglass cases,theseitemsweremorecreativelypresented.accordingtobarbaramelosh, Thistendencytoborrowandinterpretratherthantopresent originalfindingshasledmanyobserversandsomecurators 11 Wallace, VisitingthePast:HistoryMuseumsintheUnitedStates, 153. 12 Wallace, VisitingthePast:HistoryMuseumsintheUnitedStates,154. 13 Kulik, DesigningthePast:HistoryMuseumExhibitionsfromPealetothePresent, 28. 13
themselvestothinkofmuseumexhibitsasakindoftrickledown from real historicalworkdoneelsewhere.butexhibitsarenever simplymirrorsofscholarlywork.evenwhentheyarebasedon scholarshipconductedelsewhere,theyarenottranslationsbut highlyselectiveadaptations. 14 Museumsarecontrolledenvironments,andthestorytoldtovisitorsisdistilled frommanydifferentelements.thearchitectureofabuildingcanbeutilizedto enhancethevisitorexperience,asisthecasewiththeunitedstatesholocaust MemorialMuseum.Museumshaveadditionaldistinctdifferenceswhen comparedwithhistoricsites.meloshnotes, Themuseumhastheadvantageofengagingitsaudiencewiththe visualenticementsofvideo,film,andphotography.inadditionto theallureandimmediacyofthesemedia,theymayalsorender exhibitsmoreaccessiblebecausetheyprovideavisualexperience thatisfamiliartoviewsfromanelectronicandimagesaturated culture. 15 Historicsitesinterpreters,thoughtheydonotemploythesametacticsof museums,havedistincttoolstoeducatevisitors. Traditionally,historicsitesreliednearlyentirelyonthehistoricfabricthat comprisedthesite.visitorswereeducatedaboutthehistoryofthesitethrough informationsuppliedbyguideswhosometimeswerefirstpersoninterpreters. 14 BarbaraMelosh, SpeakingofWomen:Museums RepresentationsofWomen shistory, in HistoryMuseumsintheUnitedStates,eds.WarrenLeonandRoyRosenzweig(Chicago: UniversityofIllinoisPress,1989),184. 15 Melosh, SpeakingofWomen:Museums RepresentationsofWomen shistory, 185. 14
Artifactswereutilizedtoprovidea senseofplace, whichremainsthemost importantaspectofahistoricsite.tostandonthehallowedgroundofantietam orintheedgarallanpoehouseinistophiladelphiaconjureupimagesofpast eventsthatmaybeofthemostpotentelementsofavisit. 16 Forexample,atourof thebasementinwhichpoe sstory TheBlackCat maybehavebeensetisa highlyevocativeexperience. Thesenseofplacethatahistoricsiteofferscannotbeduplicatedina museum,anditoffersacompletelydifferentexperienceforthevisitor.gregory Ashworthdescribedthesenseofplaceinhisarticle Heritage,identityand interpretingaeuropeansenseofplace Heritage interpretation has an important spatial dimension. Simply, individuals and social groups endow their local environmentswithmeaningsthatarenotintrinsictothephysical formsthemselvesbutareascribedtothembypeople.placesthus bothreceiveandconveyidentities.thisisthesenseofplace,which is a powerful instrument in shaping and reinforcing feelings of identification with specific areas in individuals, who in turn, by their reaction, further strengthen such identities.these meanings arebothexpressedthroughthemediumofheritageandbecomethe perceivedcollectiveheritageofindividualsandgroups. 17 16 ThePoeHouseisfacinganimportantinterpretivedecision.Thehouseiscurrentlynot furnished,becausenoknownfurnitureofpoe sexists.interpretershavedebatedwhether furnishingthehouseinthewaytheythinkitmighthavelookedatthetimepoelivedthere wouldaddvisualinterest,orifthehouseasitlookstodayservesitsinterpretivepurpose. 17 GregoryAshworth, Heritage,identityandinterpretingaEuropeansenseofplace, in ContemporaryIssuesinHeritageandEnvironmentalInterpretation,112. 15
Inrecentyears,historicsitemanagershaveincreasinglyaddedmuseum elementstoheritagesites.visitor,orinterpretive,centerscanbefoundwith greaterfrequencyatgettysburgnationalbattlefield,independencenational HistoricalPark,andtheAfricanBurialGroundinNewYorkCity,where planningforaninterpretivecenterisunderway.theseinterpretivecenters includemanyofthesamecomponentsasmuseums,includingvideos, photographs,interactivedisplays,andartifacts.interestingly,somemuseums haveincorporatedhistoricsiteelementsintotheirinterpretiveprogramming, suchasreconstructedbuildingsorroomsinsidethemuseumitself. Asashifthasbeenmadetoincludelesswidelyembracedpartsofour past,historicsitesandmuseumshavehadtoadapttheirinterpretiveprograms accordingly.nolongercontenttocommemorateonlyheroicandpositivefeats, sitesbegantoemergethatalsoexaminedpartsofourheritagethathadbeen largelyignored.sitessuchasthegulagmuseuminrussiaandtheterezin MemorialintheCzechRepublicexamineexploitationandinfringementon humanrights.therehasalsobeenareevaluationoftheinterpretationatlong existingsitestoincludeassessmentofthe darker aspectsoftheirstory, especiallyslaveryatsomesites.therehasbeenincreasedvisitationtositeslike these,aswellasnaziconcentrationcamps,whichreflectagrowingintereston thepartofthepublictolearnmoreaboutthisaspectofourheritage,asnotedby 16
JohnLennonandMalcolmFoleyinDarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathand Disaster. Itisclearfromanumberofsourcesthattouristinterestinrecentdeath, disasterandatrocityisagrowingphenomenoninthelatetwentiethandearly twentyfirstcenturiesandthattheoristshavebothnoticedandattemptedto understandit. 18 ThecreationofTheInternationalCoalitionofHistoricSiteMuseumsof Consciencein1999furtheremphasizedthegrowingsignificanceofthesetypesof sites.itstatedamongitsfoundingprinciples Weholdcommonthebeliefthatitistheobligationofhistoricsites toassistthepublicindrawingconnectionsbetweenthehistoryof oursitesanditscontemporaryimplications.weviewstimulating dialogue on pressing social issues and promoting humanitarian anddemocraticvaluesasaprimaryfunction. 19 Thesocialagendaatthesesiteshasadirectimpactonhowthesitesare interpreted.theinternationalcoalitionofhistoricsitemuseumsofsocial Consciencedoesnotincludeallhistoricsitesormuseumsthatfocusoncivilor humanrightsissues.thecoalitionexpectsacertainapproachfromthesitesthat areincludedinit. 20 Theyhaveaverydidacticapproachtotheinterpretationof 18 LennonandFoley,DarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathandDisaster,3. 19 RuthJ.Abram, PlantingCutFlowers, AASLHHistoryNews(Summer2000):9. 20 TheInternationalCoalitionofHistoricSiteMuseumsofSocialConsciencecurrentlyincludes thirteensitesfromaroundtheglobe.theyare:districtsixmuseum(southafrica),eleanor RooseveltNationalHistoricSite(UnitedStates),GulagMuseumatPerm36(Russia),Japanese AmericanNationalMuseum(UnitedStates),LiberationWarMuseum(Bangladesh),LowerEast SideTenementMuseum(UnitedStates),MaisondesEsclaves(Senegal),MartinLutherKingJr. NationalHistoricSite(UnitedStates),MemoriaAbierta(Argentina),NationalCivilRights 17
theirsites.itisnotneutral,andasitemustbewillingtotakeaveryprogressive approachtotheirinterpretation.thesitestellthestoriesofslavery,genocide, peoplelivinginpoverty,andpeoplewholackedcivilandhumanrights. Interpretationatallsitesincludestheissueofvisitoremotions.Asnotedby DavidUzzellandRoyBallantyne, Emotionscolorourmemoriesand experiencesandthusourselectiveattentiontoinformation.ourmindsarenot virginterritoriesandourpastexperiencesanddecisionsinfluenceourfuture actions. 21 Thismustbetakenintoaccountinparticularwheninterpretingsites ofatrocityandhorror.thesesiteshaveauniqueemotionalimpactonvisitors, andmustalsoaccommodate,inmanycases,survivors. Manyofthesesitesinterpretrecentevents,andthepeopledirectly affectedbythemortheirchildrenstillsurvive.interpretersatthesesiteshave twodistinctaudiences:foronegrouptheseplacesarememorials,foranother, theyarelearningcenters.thevoiceofthesurvivorissomethingnewtomany interpretersandsitemanagers.survivorsholda moralcurrency 22 thatisoften themostvaluableandimportantpartofinterpretiveplanning.intheinitial stagesofthecreationoftheunitedstatesholocaustmuseum,perhapsthe Museum(UnitedStates),TerezinMemorial(CzechRepublic),Women srightsnationalhistoric Park(UnitedStates),TheWorkhouse(England).InternationalCoalitionofHistoricSite MuseumsofSocialConsciencewebsite,www.sitesofconscience.org. 21 DavidL.UzzellandRoyBallantyne, Heritagethathurts:interpretationinapostmodern world, incontemporaryissuesinheritageandenvironmentalinterpretation,152. 22 KathleenDilonardoandJoanneBlacoe,Interviewbyauthor,August2004. 18
biggestchallengefacingcouncilmemberswasthequestionof ownership of Holocaustmemory.Theplanningprocesssaw boundariesdefined,attacked, defended,preserved,redrawn,andreestablished.itisastoryofthestill continuingnegotiationsovertheboundariesofmemory. 23 Theissueof ownershipiscommontomanysitesthatcommemoratedifficulthistories. Survivorsjustifiablyfeelthey own theeventbeinginterpreted,andshould thereforehavetheloudestvoiceintheinterpretiveplanningprocess.managers mustbalancesurvivors feelings,againsttheneedtopresentmaterialinaway thatwilleducatefuturegenerations.thissituationcreatestheneedforflexibility ininterpretationdesign.aseventsfadeandsurvivorsdie,thewaysinwhichthe sitesareinterpretedmaychange,but issueswhichinvolvepersonalvalues, beliefs,interestsandmemorieswillexciteadegreeofemotionalarousalwhich needstoberecognizedandaddressedininterpretation. 24 Itisalways imperativewheninterpretingasiteoratamuseumnottofreezethestoryata certainpointinhistory,andalsotoevolvethestoryastimegoeson.holocaust scholarvolkardkniggedescribedtheneedforrecentinterpretationatthe BuchenwaldMemorialinGermany, Thisgenerationhasgrownupinadifferent culture,withdifferentmediums.weneedtoattemptnewwaysof 23 EdwardLinenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaust Museum(NewYork:VikingPress,199),4. 24 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaust Museum,152. 19
communicatingwiththem,andgivethemthechancetoformulatetheirownway ofaccessingthehistoryhere.otherwisewe respeakingalanguagetheydon t understand. 25 Flexibilitybysitemanagersallowsinterpretationtoadaptto differentexpectationsandexperiencesofpeopleovertime,something imperativetothelongevityandsuccessofasiteormuseum. RoyBallantyneandDavidUzzelldiscussedthisissueoftheneedforan interpretiveplanthatevolvesovertime.theystated, The third factor that relates to our emotional engagement and responsetoheritage,andinteractswithbothtimeandabstraction, isdistance.bothphysicalandpsychologicaldistancefrompeople, places, events and artifacts can accentuate or moderate one s emotionalinvolvementaswellasone sknowledge,concernand,of course,action. 26 Theyrecognizedtheimportancethattimewillplayinaninterpretive exhibit.thebattleofgettsyburgwouldprobablyhavebeeninterpreted differentlybythegenerationthatfoughtinitthanbyinterpretersatgettysburg today.thisissueofemotionalinvolvementwiththeeventbeinginterpretedwas coined hotinterpretation byuzzellandballantyne.theyusedtheexampleof thedistrictsixmuseumincapetown,southafrica,asagoodexampleof achievingtheaimsof hotinterpretation. 25 AndreasTzortzis, AttheGiftShop:SouvenirsatBuchenwald, NewYorkTimes,15 September2004. 26 UzzellandBallantyne, Heritagethathurts:interpretationinapostmodernworld, 162. 20
TheestablishmentoftheDistrictSixMuseuminBuitenkantStreet, Cape Town, in 1992 has gone part of the way towards achieving some of the aims of a hot interpretive approach. It is truly a people s museumandhasbeenestablishedthroughthegoodwill of the community.housed in the old Central Methodist Church, which in the days of Apartheid was venue for protest meetings, prayer vigils and a sanctuary for those physically and psychologically injured by police during protest actions, the museum has been very successful in attracting Cape Town community members and tourists through its doors.exhibitions havefocuseduponcommunity memories oflivinginthearea. 27 Thismuseum sinterpretiveprogramfunctionsinmuchthesamewayastheu.s. HolocaustMuseumandManzanar,whichbothusesurvivormemoriesofevents, atechniquecommontositesexploringcivilandhumanrightsissues. Theneedtoaccuratelydepictastoryisimperativebecausewitheducation peoplemaybecomeinvolvedintheprotectionofthesesites.forsitesofsocial conscience,theaudience sengagementinthesite smissioncanbeachieved throughsuccessfulinterpretation.georgeb.robinsonreflectedonthe importanceofsuccessfullyinterpretingaplace: Success depends on the fundamental purpose of interpretation.if thepurposeistoentertain,thenapplause,laughter,handclaps,and other conventional expressions of approval may be considered indicativeofsuccess.ifitistoinform,perhapsdisturb,toinvoke thechildwithin,togeneratelove,understanding,andcommitment, tohelpclarifyvalues,tohelpensurethelongtermintegrityofthe planetandthequalityoflifeonitssurface,thenthoughtfulsilence, expressionsofconcern,unabashedandunaffectedinteractionwith 27 Uzzell InterpretingOurHeritage:ATheoreticalInterpretation, 167. 21
theearthandwithothers,areinitial,andmoredefinitiveindicators ofsuccess. 28 ThefollowingtwosectionsarecasestudiesofsuchinterpretationattheUnited StatesHolocaustMuseumandManzanarNationalHistoricSite. 28 Robinson, JudgmentoftheChild:ABriefPolemic, 4849. 22
ChapterThree:TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum Historicpreservationcharacteristicallyfocusesontherehabilitation, restorationorconservationofhistoricstructures.however,wheninterpreting anevent,ratherthanahistoricsite,differentinterpretivemethodsmustbeused inordertoaccuratelyportraythestory.interpretationisfurthercomplicated whentheeventoccurredinanothercountry,inanothertime,andwithno structurestopreserveatthelocationwheretheeventisbeingdepicted.thisis trueoftheunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseum,andisaconcernthathas presentedinterpretivechallengesforthestaffofthemuseum.inadditionto interpretinganeventthatdidnothappenonu.s.soil,thesubjectmatterbeing representedattheholocaustmuseumpresentsadditionalissues.thiswas addressedindarktourism:theattractionofdeathanddisaster. Mass killing sites, particularly those associated with the Jewish Holocaust, present major challenges for interpretation and invariably questionsariseconcerning the natureofmotivationfor visitors.theenormityofthesystematicdestructionofthejewish peopleisbeyondunderstandingandconstitutesanenormoustask inthesenseof interpretation and explanation. 29 Thesameconcernsareissuesarealsotrueforthemuseumsattemptingto interprettheseevents. 29 LennonandFoley,DarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathandDisaster,27. 23
Thepreservationandinterpretationofmemoryrequireadelicatebalance betweenremembering,commemorating,andeducating.whilemostmuseums usesimilarinterpretivetechniques,regardlessofsubjectmatter,the interpretationofhorrificeventsevokesemotionalchordsnotfoundintypical historymuseums.theholocausthasbeenmemorializedinmanycities throughouttheunitedstatesandtheworld.thememorialsvarywidelyfrom placetoplace,andsomearemorepowerfulthanothers.holocausthistorian JamesYoungnoted, ThereasonsforHolocaustmemorialsandthekindsof memorytheygeneratevaryaswidelyasthesitesthemselves. SomearebuiltinresponsetotraditionalJewishinjunctionsto remember,othersaccordingtoagovernment sneedtoexplaina nation spasttoitself.whereastheaimofsomememorialsisto educatethenextgenerationandtoinculcateinitasenseofshared experienceanddestiny,othermemorialsareintendedtoattract tourists. 30 TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumwascreatedasthe nationalmemorialtothevictimsoftheholocaust,andattemptstoaddressallof theseissues. TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumisoneofthemost powerfulexamplesofhowwerememberatragiceventinamuseumsettingin theunitedstates,and,forsome,hasbecomethebenchmarkbywhich 30 JamesE.Young, CriticalIssuesinPublicArt;Content,Context,andControversy, Holocaust MemorialsinAmerica;PublicArtasProcess,(NewYork:HarperCollins,1992),57. 24
remembrancecanbemeasured.theinterpretationoftheholocaustatthe museumisattimesbothdisturbingandmoving.avarietyoftechniquesare usedtoeducatethevisitorintheeventsoftheholocaust,toensurethatsuch crimeswillneverhappenagain.authorjamesyoungdescribedthepowerful experiencevisitorscanhaveatmuseumsasfollows: The museum is not the only site where subjectivities and objectivities collide, but it is a particularly evocative one for the study of historical consciousness. A museum is a cultural institution where individual expectations and institutional, academic intentions interact, and the result is far from a oneway street.a range of personal memories is produced, not limited to the subject matter of exhibits, as well as a range of collective memoriessharedamongmuseumvisitors. 31 Themuseumhasalastingimpactonmostwhovisitit,becauseofthe subjectmatter,butalsobecauseofthewayinwhichthatinformationis interpreted. Visitationtothemuseumhasremainedrelativelyconstantinthe12years sinceitopened,withanaverageof5,000peopleperday,anoverwhelming numberofvisitorsforarelativelysmallmuseum.asonereporternotedshortly afterthemuseumopened theunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseumhere hasaproblemmostmuseumswouldenvy.sinceopeningonthemalleight monthsago,themuseumhasliterallybeenoverwhelmedbythevolume,andthe 31 SusanA.Crane, Memory,Distortion,andHistoryintheMuseum, inhistoryandtheory Vol.6,No.4(December1997),46. 25
longattentionspans,ofitsvisitors. 32 OnlytheUnitedStatesAirandSpace MuseumreceivedmorevisitorstotheMall(nearly11millionin2003),thoughit isworthnotingthatvisitorstotheholocaustmuseumspendroughlythreetimes aslonggoingthroughtheexhibitsthandovisitorstotheairandspace Museum. 33 Thedurationofthevisitcanbeexplainedinpartbythesheer volumeofinformationdisplayedittakestheaveragevisitor3hourstogo throughthepermanentexhibit.toursofthenationalmuseumoftheamerican IndiantakefarlesstimethantoursoftheUnitedStatesHolocaustMuseum,with visitorsstaying90minutes. 34 Tocomparethenumberofvisitorstoanother widelypopulardestination,themuseumofscienceandindustryinchicagohas had160millionvisitorssinceitsopeningin1933, 35 buthas14acresofexhibition space,comparedtotheholocaustmuseumexhibition s36,000squarefeet. 36 A museumthatinterpretssimilarsubjectmatter,themuseumofjewishheritagea LivingMemorialtotheHolocaustinNewYorkCity,openedwithonly30,000 32,RobertaSmith, HolocaustMuseumAdjustingtoRelentlessFloodofVisitors, TheNewYork Times,23December1993. 33 TimothyCole,ImagesoftheHolocaust:Mythofthe Shoah business,(london:duckworth,1999), 146147.TheAirandSpaceMuseum,thoughitreceivesmorevisitors,isalsomuchlargerand thereforebetterequippedtocopewiththevolumeofvisitorsitreceives. 34 SmithsonianInstitutionWebsite,www.si.edu. 35 MuseumofScienceandIndustrywebsite,www.msichicago.org. 36 TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumhas265,000squarefeetofspacetotal.The UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumwebsite,www.ushmm.org. 26
squarefeet,butrecentlyaddedanadditional82,000squarefeet.themuseum hashadnearlyhalfamillionvisitorssinceitopenedin1997. 37 AnationalmemorialtovictimsoftheHolocaustwasfirstproposedin 1978duringtheCarteradministration.Acommissionwasformed,headedby ElieWiesel,aleaderintheJewishcommunityandanexpertontheHolocaust. 38 Wiesel,asurvivorofbothAuschwitzandBuchenwaldconcentrationcamps,was thechairmanofthepresidentscommissionontheholocaust.heisa distinguishedscholarandauthor,andhastaughtatthecityuniversityofnew York,wherehewasadistinguishedprofessorofJudaicStudies,aswellasthe firsthenrylucevisitingscholarinhumanitiesandsocialthoughtatyale University.HecurrentlyholdsthepositionofAndrewW.MellonProfessorin thehumanitiesatbostonuniversity,andhaswrittenmorethanfortybooks, manycenteredontheholocaust. 39 Wieselacceptedtheposition,withthe conditionthat: thememorialwouldhavetobeeducationalinnature, 37 TheMuseumofJewishHeritageALivingMemorialtotheHolocaust,islocatedinBattery Park,inManhattan.ThemuseumhasadifferentmissionthantheUnitedStatesHolocaust MemorialMuseum,whichhasimpactedtheapproachtointerpretation.It goesbeyond recountingthehorrorsoftheholocaust.itsmissionistoeducatepeopleofallagesand backgroundsaboutthebroadtapestryofjewishlifeoverthepastcenturybefore,during,and aftertheholocaust.ittranscendsreligious,ethnic,anddenominationaldifferencestoraisetoa newlevelofhumancomprehensionthehorrorandtragediesoftheholocaust,whileatthesame timecelebratingtherichnessofjewishcultureandthestrengthofthejewishpeople. Itisnot focusedsolelyontheholocaust,butalsooneducationaboutjewishlifeoverabroaderspanof time.themuseumofjewishheritagealivingmemorialtotheholocaustwebsite, www.mjhnyc.org. 38 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,21. 39 ElieWieselwebsite,www.eliewieselfoundation.org. 27
commissionmemberswouldneedtotraveltoholocaustsitesineurope,anda nationaldayofremembranceforholocaustvictimswouldhavetobepartofthe commission sresponsibility. 40 Aftertheplanningcouncilforthemuseum formed,itstilltookmanyyearstoresolveconflictsbeforethemuseumopened. Thecommitteestruggledwithhowthesubjectmatterwithinthemuseumwould beinterpreted,howmuchdisturbingmaterialtoshowandhowtodisplayit. Thecommission schargeincludedtripsbycommissionmembersandthedesign teamtoconcentrationcampsineurope,thecollectionofartifactsforthe museum spermanentexhibition,andthedesignofthebuilding. Oneofthemostcontentiousissuesduringtheplanningphasewasthe inclusionofothergroupswhowerevictimizedbythenazisinthemuseum story.manyonthemuseumcouncilfeltthemuseumshouldbeamonument onlytothesixmillionjews,whileothersvictimsgroupswantedtoincludethe fivemillionotherswhohadperished,includinggypsies,homosexualsand politicalprisoners.intheend,thecommitteedecidedtofocusonthestoryofthe Jewishcommunity,butincludedthestoriesofotherstargetedforgenocideby thenaziregime[figure1]. 41 Themuseumhasaspecificsocialagenda,whichis reflectedinitsmissionstatement: 40 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,22. 41 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,240246. 28
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is America s national institution for the documentation, study, and interpretation of Holocaust history, and serves as this country s memorialtothemillionsofpeoplemurderedduringtheholocaust. The Holocaust was the statesponsored, systematic persecutionandannihilationofeuropeanjewrybynazigermany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945. Jews were the primary victimssix million were murdered; Gypsies, the handicapped and Poles were also targeted for destruction and decimation for racial, ethnic, or national reasons.millions more, including homosexuals, Jehovah s Witnesses, Soviet prisoners of warandpoliticaldissidents,alsosufferedgrievousoppressionand deathundernazityranny. The Museum s primary mission is to advance and disseminate knowledge about this unprecedented tragedy; to preservethe memoryof those who suffered;and toencourageits visitorstoreflectuponthemoralandspiritualquestionsraisedby theeventsoftheholocaustaswellastheirownresponsibilitiesas citizensofademocracy. Chartered by a unanimous Act of Congress in 1980 and located adjacent to the National Mall in Washington, DC, the Museumstrivestobroadenpublicunderstandingofthehistoryof the Holocaust through multifaceted programs: exhibitions; research and publication; collecting and preserving material evidence, art and artifacts relating to the Holocaust; annual Holocaust commemorations known as the Days of Remembrance; distribution of educational materials and teacher resources; and a varietyofpublicprogrammingdesignedtoenhanceunderstanding of the Holocaust and related issues, including those of contemporarysignificance. 42 Themissionstatement,withitsclearsocialagenda,greatlyimpactedthewayin whichtheholocaustwouldbeinterpreted.itwouldtellthevictims sideofthe story,withemphasisontheeuropeanjewishcommunity. 42 UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumMissionStatement,www.ushmm.org 29
ThecommissionwasinitiallycomposedofmanyJewishcommunity leaders,butexcludedleadersofothervictimsgroups,suchaspolishcitizens. Someofthesegroupswereexcludedbecausethecommissionbelievedtheyhad colludedwiththegermans(aswasthecasewithpoland).others,including Gypsies,eventuallyplayedaroleintheplanningprocess,andtheirstorycameto beseenbythecommissionasanimportantinclusionintheexhibition.alan MintzaddressedthisinhisbookPopularCultureandtheShapingofHolocaust MemoryinAmerica. ThejourneyfromCarter sannouncementinthewhitehouserose gardenin1978throughthereaganandbushyearsintotheclinton presidencywhentheu.s.holocaustmemorialmuseumopenedits doors in 1993 was a rocky one that threatened to break down at many points along the way.the problems had less to do with traditional Washington politics in a narrow sense than with the new identitypolitics inwhichdifferentethnicgroupsinamerica contendedformoralauthorityandprominence. 43 Alloftheseissuesplayedanimportantroleintheformationofthe museum.theunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseumopenedonapril26, 1993,onapproximatelytwoacresoffederallydonatedlandadjacenttotheMall inwashingtond.c.themuseumwastherecipientof$168millionindonated funds,andisoperatedbytheu.s.holocaustmemorialcouncil,afederalagency. 43 AlanMintz,PopularCultureandtheShapingofHolocaustMemoryinAmerica,(Seattle: UniversityofWashingtonPress,2001),27. 30
Atotalof7,000peopleattendedtheopeningceremony,and the1,125 44 visitors wereacrosssectionofamerica,fromalloverthecountry,everyraceand religion.theycame,theysaid,toremember,tolearn,toassurethatsuchhorrors neveroccuragain. 45 Thebuilding[Figure2],designedbyarchitectJamesIngo Freed,housespermanentandtemporaryexhibitspace,aresearchlibraryand archives,twotheaters,memorialspaces,classrooms,andaninteractivecomputer learningcenter,allofwhichservetosupportthemuseum smissionasaplaceof contemplation,learningandcommemoration.thebuildingissituatednextto thebureauofprintingandengraving.theoriginalbuildingsthatwere designatedforthemuseumonthesiteweredeemedinappropriateandanew buildingwasdesigned 46. Thenewbuilding,whichincludesthe50,000squarefootpermanent exhibitionspace,wasdesignedbyfreedwithspecificgoalsinmind.the Museumisdividedintothreespaces,aHallofWitnesstotellthestory[Figure3], ahalloflearning[figure4]toeducatethepublicaboutmodernimplicationsof 44 7000peopleattendedtheopeningceremony,whoseguestsincludedPresidentandMrs. ClintonandVicePresidentandMrs.Gore.1125peoplevisitedthemuseumonitsopeningday. TimothyJ.McNulty, LessonsofHolocaustsurvivetheevil, ChicagoTribune,23April1993. 45 ArthurJ.Magida, AMuseumForAmericans, BaltimoreJewishTimes,30April1993. 46 TheoriginalbuildingsdesignatedforthemuseumwereexistingbuildingsknownasAnnexes1 &2,originallypartoftheAuditor scomplex.attemptstofitmemorialspace,alibraryandan archive,administrativeoffices,andthepermanentexhibitionintothe50,000squarefeet appropriateddidnotwork.thebuildingswereonthenationalregisterofhistoricplaces,and hadtobedelistedbeforetheycouldbetorndown.linenthal,preservingmemory:thestruggleto CreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,61. 31
theholocaust,andthehallofremembrance[figure5]tomournthosewho weremurdered. 47 EdwardLinenthalstated, JimFreeddidn twantpeopletolookoutatthemallhewantedthe visitortobeimmersedintheexperienceoftheholocaust.he broughtlargeartifactsovertotakepeopleoutofamericansoiland toimmersethemintheexperienceofthecampsineurope,to immersethemintheholocaustmuseum. 48 Freedguidedtheinterpretiveprocessbyusingmaterials,lighting,andlayoutsto evokethefeelingofbeinginaconcentrationcampwithinthemuseumspace [Figure6].AnarticleinTheNewYorkTimesdescribesthewayinwhichFreed usesthebuildingtoenhancetheexhibitionsithouses. In his museum Mr. Freed has not literally reproduced these forms.rather,hehasabsorbedthem,tracingtheircontoursasithe coulddistilltheirmeaninginaritualofrecollection.theresultis anarchitecturalvocabularythatispartlysymbolic,partlyabstract. Imagesofconfinement,observation,atrocityanddenialsurfaceand recede within the building s hard industrial forms:expanses of brickwallboltedwithsteel,floatingglassbridgesengravedwith thenamesofdevastatedcities,leadpyramidsclusteredintosentry boxrooflines. 49 Freed suseofthebuildingtohelpshapetheinterpretiveexperiencewasfairly innovativeatthetimeandcausedthevisitortomakeanemotionalconnection withthespace.thenewyorktimesarticleadded: 47 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,79. 48 EdwardLinenthal,interviewbyauthor,2March2005. 49 HerbertMuschamp, ShapingaMonumenttoMemory, TheNewYorkTimes,11April1993. 32
While the building cannot be compared to the harrowing exhibitions it contains, it provides far more than a neutral background for the tale that must be told.the building invites interpretation but confounds analysis. Its monumental forms appeartobeshapednotbyarchitecturebutbyhistory.itisnota buildingaboutthepast.itisaboutthehistoricalpresent. 50 Byusingmaterialstoevokeconcentrationcamps,dimlighting,andnoclear routeforthevisitortofollowandfewoptionsofwheretogo,freed sdesign seekstoevokeinthevisitortheconfusionanddisorientationthatthevictimsfelt astheyarrivedattheconcentrationcamps.anotherreviewerdescribedfreed s designasfollows: Within, Freed s design encloses all the menacing, grim functionalism,thehistoryandtheinstruments,ofbureaucratically enacted genocide:hannah Arendt s banality of evil done up in the Bauhaus of hell.freed has twisted the death factory to a surrealdimension.theroofisaprocessionofcampwatchtowers. The enormous Hall of Witness is a sort of evil atrium with steel bracedbrickwallsreminiscentofcrematoria.astaircasenarrows unnaturally toward the top, crowding the visitors together, like a trick of perspective, like receding railroad tracks made abruptly real thefinalsolutionmachine.anglesareskewed,expectations thwartedandsightlinesintolerablytorqued.noexit. 51 Theintegrationofthebuildinganditsartifactsresultsinapowerfulinterpretive experience.designingabuildingtoevokeanemotionalresponseinthevisitor canalsobeseenatthejapaneseamericannationalmuseuminlosangeles 50 Muschamp, ShapingaMonumenttoMemory. 51 LanceMorrowWashington, NeverForget, Time,26April1993. 33
[Figure7]andTheMuseumofJewishHeritageALivingMemorial[Figure8]to theholocaustinnewyork.botharchitectsusedmaterialsandshapesthatare symbolictotheculturetheyarerepresenting. 52 LikeFreed sconnectiontothe Holocaust,theJapaneseAmericanNationalMuseum sarchitectwasajapanese Americanwhohadaculturalconnectiontothemuseum. 53 InhisbookMuseumPolitics:PowerPlaysattheExhibition,TimothyLuke wrotethatmuseums possessapowertoshapecollectivevaluesandsocial 52 TheMuseumofJewishHeritageALivingMemorialtotheHolocaustisdesignedtoresemblea sixsidedstarofdavidandthesixpointsarealsosymbolicofthesixmillionjewswhowere murdered.juliesalamon, WallsthatEchooftheUnspeakable, TheNewYorkTimes7 September1997. TheinteriorisalsodesignedmuchliketheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum,with threefloorsthatdivideupthechaptersofhistory.thethemesforthethreefloorsarethemesof JewishLifeaCenturyAgo,TheWarAgainsttheJews,andJewishRenewal.TheMuseumofJewish HeritageALivingMemorialtotheHolocaustwebsite,www.mjhnyc.org. 53 Theoriginalmuseum,whichopenedin1992,washousedinaformerBuddhistTempleinLittle Tokyo,andwas15,000squarefeet.An85,000squarefootadditionwasaddedin1999,designed byarchitectgyoobata.obatanarrowlyavoidedbeingsenttoajapaneseinternmentcampin 1940.HewantedthemuseumtoeducatepeopleaboutmorethanjusttheJapaneseAmerican experience.hesaid, [Themuseum]isnotjustanethnicmuseum,butamuseumaboutthe AmericanConstitutionandtheneedtodefenditsideas.[Themuseum]tellshowonegroupof peoplethroughignoranceandprejudicewereincarcerated(duringtheworldwariirelocationof JapaneseAmericans).Ifthiscanbemadevisiblewecouldbemoreawareofourfreedoms.The buildingitselfhastobeveryclear.thespaceandmaterialshavetogivetheaurathatthisisan importantinstitution.thenewfivestorycshapedadditionincludesexhibitionspace, curatorialandeducationaloffices,meetingrooms,exhibitionspaceandthenationalresource Center,wherevisitorshaveaccesstorecordsanddocumentskeptbythemuseum,gointothe newbuilding.thearchitectureofthenewbuildingwillevoketraditionaljapanesedesign. Its stronghorizontalandverticalgraniteformswillevokeelementsofjapanesedesign,andsome wallswillbemadeoftranslucentwhiteonyx,evokingshojipaperscreens. ScarletCheng, AnotherChapterinaQuietHistory:WithitsnewwingopeningSaturday,the JapaneseAmericanNationalMuseumaimsforuniversalappealinitsexpandedofferings, Los AngelesTimes21January1999,SusanMoffat, MuseumtoLinkJapanese,U.S.Cultures:Design ofexpandedfacilityinlittletokyoisaimedatoutreachtootherethnicgroups, LosAngeles Times16February1993. 34
understandingsinadecisivelyimportantfashion. 54 TheUnitedStates HolocaustMemorialMuseumusesbothpermanentandtemporaryexhibitionsto conveyitsmessage.themuseumassumesnopriorknowledgeoftheholocaust, butinsteadaimstotellthestorythatbestconveysitsmission.thepermanent exhibition,housedinthehallofwitness,spansthreefloorsandcoverstheyears 1933to1945.Visitorsentertheexhibitioncrammedontoelevatorsthatevokethe cattlecarsusedtotransportvictimstotheconcentrationcamps.eachpersonis givenanidcardwiththestoryofsomeonewhowaspersecutedbythenazis [Figure9].Thiswasanearlyuseofanowcommondevicetotelllargerstories throughtheuseofindividuals.ontheelevator,visitorsareimmediately assaultedwithimagesoftheconcentrationcampsonatvmonitor.theexhibit isdividedintothreeparts:thenaziassault19331939,thefinalsolution1940 1945,andtheLastChapter[Figure10]. DesignerRalphAppelbaumandhisteamencountereduniqueproblems incraftinganexhibitdealingwithsuchahorrificevent.authorjohndorsey commentedonthedifficultyofdesigningtheexhibitasfollows: The idea that the story of the Holocaust should be designed wouldsmackofartifice,sothehandwouldhavetobeconcealedas much as possible.the story should seem to tell itself, with an inevitabilityprecludingstaginess.yetitshouldbedoneinsucha way that not only the facts but also the horror would be 54 TimothyW.Luke,MuseumPolitics:PowerPlaysattheExhibition,(Minneapolis,Universityof MinnesotaPress,2002),xiii. 35
communicated.butitcouldn tdrivepeopleawaybeforetheend, oritwoulddefeatitsownpurpose. 55 Theexhibit,whichwasnotdesignedforchildrenunder11,ismeantto assailthevisitor semotions.thereisnoruleprohibitingchildrenfromthe exhibition,butthemuseumadvisesagainstitbecauseofthegraphiccontent. Anotherreviewercommentedthat visitorswerestunnedandnumbafterseeing graphicallyexplicitdocumentationoftheworstgenocideinhistory:barracks fromauschwitz,calipersnaziscientistsusedtodeterminewhetheragerman citizenwas Aryan,pilesofshoesfromJewskilledatadeathcamp,filmsof killingafterkillingafterkilling[figures1112]. 56 Appelbaumandhisdesign teamstartedthedesignprocessin1988withthestoryline,blankfloorplans,and asmalllistofartifacts.membersofhisteamwenttoeuropetofindartifactsand returnedwithitemsincludingacastingoftheoriginalwarsawghettowall, children stoysandpaintings,andahollerithmachine 57,amongotheritems. Appelbaumalsoputoutaworldwidepleafordonationsof documents,letters, diaries,originalworksofart,articlesofclothing,photographsandotherobjects 55 JohnDorsey, FullofinformationandFullofhorror, BaltimoreSun,25April1993. 56 Magida, AMuseumForAmericans. 57 HollerithmachinesweredataprocessingdevicesusedduringWorldWarII.TheNaziregime employedthousandsofpeoplein1933to1939torecordnationalcensusdataontohollerith punchcards.thessusedthehollerithmachinesduringthewartomonitorthelargenumbersof prisonersshippedinandoutofconcentrationcamps.jewishvirtuallibrary, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 36
thatwerecreatedinthecamps,inghettos,orinhiding[figure13]. 58 The curatorialstaffamassedover10,000items,andacollectionagreementwasmade witheveryeasterneuropeancountryexceptalbania. 59 Theseartifactsarecentraltotheexhibit,foundwhilescouringEurope. RangingfromscissorstakenfromAuschwitz,inmates uniformsfrom concentrationcamps,andbunkbedsfromacamp,theseobjectsaregrim evidencetohelpthevisitoridentifywiththestorybeingtold[figure14]. 60 These artifactsareessentialtothetellingofthestory,becauseinamuseumsetting, thereisnobetterwaytogivevisitorstheexperiencesoftheholocaust. Withinthepermanentexhibit,certainartifactshavearesounding emotionalimpact.midwaythroughtheexhibit,visitorsenteraroomfilledwith shoesconfiscatedfromvictimsbythenazis[figure15].alisonlandsberg describedtheroominheressay, America,theHolocaust,andtheMassCulture ofmemory:towardaradicalpoliticsofempathy. Shewrote, Halfway through the permanent exhibit, in the middle of the second of three floors, a walkway leads you through the room of shoes.these shoes are not displayed in any strict sense, nor are they sorted into pairs.rather, they are a chaotic, jumbled sea of shoes. The shoes, to your left and right, number into the thousands.whatstrikesme,asistandinthemiddleoftheroom,is 58 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,145. 59 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,147. 60 AlisonLandsberg, America,theHolocaust,andtheMassCultureofMemory:Towarda RadicalPoliticsofEmpathy, innewgermancritique:specialissueongermansandjews,ed.ed Gillespie,(NewYork:TelosPress,1997),78. 37
that there is a smell.hanging in the air is the stale smell of old shoes. 61 Theseshoes,alongwithacattlecarusedtotransportJewstocamps,are someofthemostpowerfulrelicsinthemuseum,providinganemotional connectiontothevictimsoftheholocaust[figure16].theyconnectvisitorsto thenotionofthemassesofpeoplewhowerekilled,whetherthatvisitorisa survivororsomeonewhohascometolearn.anarticleinthebostonglobe describesvisitors reactionstotheseartifactsthedayoftheopening. For some, it was the boxcar that transported victims to the concentration camp. For others, it was the replica of the gas chamber.but for many who visited the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum yesterday, the first day it was open to the public, what brought the horror home was something simpler. Like the discarded shoes of concentration camp victims, sandals, boots,slippers,pumpsineverysizeandshapeimaginable.orthe nameoftheirfamily sannihilatedvillage. 62 Thecattlecarinparticularhasproventobeaverypowerfulinterpretive tool,especiallyforsurvivorswhovisitthemuseum.landsberg sarticlewenton tostate, Perhapsthemostradicaleradicationofthedichotomybetweenour spaceandmuseumorobjectspaceoccurswhenwepassthrougha boxcarwhichwasusedtotransportjewsfromthewarsawghetto 61 Landsberg, America,theHolocaust,andtheMassCultureofMemory:TowardaRadical PoliticsofEmpathy, 79. 62 AnaPuga, Atimetoremember:AstheHolocaustmuseumsopens,variedobjectbringthe horrorshome, BostonGlobe,27April1993. 38
totreblinkain19421943.insideitisdarkandsmallandempty, andyetthethoughtthat100bodiesfilledthatverycarhauntsthe space. 63 Bybringingelementsthatwerefoundattheconcentrationcampsintothe museum,exhibitdesignersattemptedtoduplicatesomeofthe senseofplace foundathistoricsites.themuseumdesignersrecognizedtheneedtogive visitorsanauthenticexperience.astimcolepointedout, it is not that this is the kind of barracks that inmates at Auschwitz inmates lived in.the aim was to create patches of Holocaust space within a building that has removed people from American space and has placed them in the artificial world of exhibition space. Within this artificial space, an authentic Holocaust experience would be created through the use of authenticartifacts. 64 Beingatahistoricsitegivesthevisitoracontextthatcannotbereplicated inamuseum,buttheseartifacts,alongwithsamplesoftheactualelementsused totransportpeopletoeuropeancampsbringpiecesofthesitesintothemuseums [Figure17]. Othermuseumsuseartifactsandsimilarmediatoconveytheirmessage. BoththeJapaneseAmericanNationalMuseumandTheMuseumofJewish HeritageALivingMemorialtotheHolocaustusetechniquessimilartothe 63 Landsberg, America,theHolocaust,andtheMassCultureofMemory:TowardaRadical PoliticsofEmpathy, 70. 64 Cole,ImagesoftheHolocaust:Mythofthe Shoah business,164. 39
HolocaustMuseum. 65 TheSimonWiesenthalCenterandadjoiningMuseumof ToleranceinLosAngelesusesaslightlydifferentapproachtointerpretation.Itis dedicatedto PreservingthememoryoftheHolocaustbyfosteringtoleranceand understanding through community involvement, educational outreach and social action. The Center confronts important contemporary issues including racism, antisemitism, terrorism and genocide and is accredited as an NGO [Nongovernmental organizations associated with the United Nations] both at the United Nations and UNESCO [United Nations Educational, ScientificandCulturalOrganization]. 66 65 TheMuseumofJewishHeritageusesindividualstories,artifacts,photographs,andfilmed interviewstotellthestoryofjewishculture.theexhibitionconsistsofmorethan2,000historic photographs,800historicalandculturalartifacts,and24originaldocumentaryfilmssthathave beengatheredfornearlytwodecades.themuseumofjewishheritagewebsiteis, www.mjhnyc.org. TheJapaneseAmericanNationalMuseumexhibitionintheexistingbuildingfocusesontheturn ofthecenturyimmigrationexperiencesoffirstgenerationisseipioneers,displayingtheirwicker suitcases,plantationworkclothes,boatticketsandlaborcontracts,thenewwingwillfocuson thequintessentiallyamericanexperiencesofthenisei. Themuseumcontains30,000piecesof art,artifacts,photography,filmandvideo,textilesandephemeraaboutthejapaneseamerican experience.cheng, AnotherChapterinaQuietHistory:WithitsnewwingopeningSaturday, thejapaneseamericannationalmuseumaimsforuniversalappealinitsexpandedofferings, LosAngelesTimes21January1999,Moffat, MuseumtoLinkJapanese,U.S.Cultures:Designof expandedfacilityinlittletokyoisaimedatoutreachtootherethnicgroups, LosAngelesTimes 16February1993. 66 TheCenter,establishedin1977,isheadquarteredinLosAngeles,andhasofficesinNewYork, Toronto,Miami,Jerusalem,ParisandBuenosAires.TheadjacentMuseumofTolerance,which openedin1993, containsfeworiginal objects asitsfocus,rather,itusesaseriesofmedia imagesandcommunicationstechnologiestobothrepresentintolerances,suchasracism,andto exposetheindividualintolerancesofvisitorsthemselves.althoughstronglyassociatedwiththe JewishHolocaustandthemonitoringofrightwingpoliticalgroups,thethemeofthemuseumis intolerancegenerally,withaviewtoencouragingparticipationbyuserswhich,inturn,leadsto criticalreflectionuponpersonalvaluesandbehaviors.whilenotlocateduponasiteofatrocity itself,itusesitscombineddatabaseandinformationcommunicationtechnologiestoofferbotha global(thestartingpointforanalysisisturkishpersecutionofarmeniansin1915)andlocal(e.g. the RodneyKing affair)perspectivewithinamultiethnic,multiculturalcity. Lennonand Foley,DarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathandDisaster,21,SimonWiesenthalCenterwebsite, www.wiesenthal.com. 40
TheMuseumofTolerancehasexhibitsthatfocusonthebroaderissueof civilrightsandgenocidethroughouttheworld,whilerelatingtheseissuesback tothejewishholocaust. 67 Thetowering WallofPhotographs thatspansthreefloorsofthe museumisanotherdistinctiveelement.yaffaeliach,aprofessorofhistoryat BrooklynCollegeandamemberofthePresident scommissionontheholocaust donatedthephotographs[figure18].shesurvivedtheholocaustasachildin Lithuania,andthephotographsareofthemurderedJewsofEjszyszki,thetown whereeliachgrewup.only29peopleinthevillagesurvivedthegerman mobilekillingsquadsthatwipedout4,000jewsin2daysin1941.ratherthan showthecitizensofthetownbeingpersecuted,theimagesshowthecitizens goingabouttheireverydaylivesinthedecadesbeforethewar,andgivea humanfacetothevictimsoftheholocaust. 68 Oneelementthatbecameasourceofcontroversyintheplanningphase washumanhairgiventothemuseumfromauschwitzwheremoundsofhuman hairaredisplayedinoneofthebarracks[figure19].manymembersofthe 67 ExhibitsincludeAintYouGottaRight?,adramatic16screenvideowalldetailingthe struggleforcivilrightsinamericathrougharchivalfootageandinterviewsfromthatperiodin time,and InOurTime, apowerfulandgrippingfilmonbosnia,rwandaandcontemporary hategroupsthatpinpointscontemporaryhumanrightsviolationsgoingonthroughouttheworld today.museumoftolerancewebsite,www.museumoftolerance.com. 68 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,13,106. 41
Councilfeltthatdisplayingthehairatthemuseum,awayfromits home, wouldbeghoulish.councilhistoriansybilmiltonsaidofthecontroversy, It was human matter out of place, registering differently from railcars or shoes.it must be assumed that objects such as hair, bones, and ashes will not be considered as potential accessions TheydonotbelonginanAmericansetting,whereno concentration camps stood and which was not the primary arena fortheeventsnowknownastheholocaust. 69 Thedebateoverthehairillustratesthepowerthatthesurvivorsand Jewishmembersofthecouncilcarried.Whenonecouncilmemberstatedthat forallsheknew,thehairdisplayedcouldbefrommembersofherfamily, the hairwaskeptoutoftheexhibitoutofrespectforsuchfeelings. 70 Photographsof thehairatauschwitzaredisplayedinstead.inthiscase,theprivilegedvoiceof thesurvivorwonout.raulhilberg,anotherjewishcouncilleader,remarked oneoftheproblematic rules ofholocaustspeechisthatanysurvivor,no matterhowinarticulate,issuperiortothegreatestholocausthistorianwhodid notshareintheexperience. 71 Thehair,thoughtitmayhaveproventobea powerfulexhibit,wouldhaveshockedandhorrifiedmanyvisitors,already pushedtotheiremotionallimitsbythecontentsoftheexistingexhibit. 69 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,213. 70 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,215. 71 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,216. 42
Additionalexhibitfeaturesinclude5,000artifacts,includingphotographs, uniforms,letters,andadanishfishingboatusedtotransportjewstosafetyin Sweden[Figure20]. 72 Visitorscanalsousecomputerstationstolookuparticles fromtheirlocalpaperstoseewhatwasbeingreportedatthetime,andthereare theatersshowingmoviesaboutvariousaspectsoftheholocaustandaroom featuringfirstpersoninterviewswithsurvivors.thoughtheexhibitisnot intendedforchildrenundertheageof11,particularlygraphicmaterialis displayedbehindprivacywallstoshieldanychildrenthatmightvisit. WhilethemuseumisunflinchinginitsportrayaloftheNazis,exhibits alsodepictthereactionofothercountriestotheplightofthejews,includingthe lackofresponsetothegenocidebytheunitedstatesgovernment.exhibits illustratethesituationsinwhichamericaturnedablindeye.forexample Americansrefusedtotakeinthe ShipofFools in1939,thelinerst. Louis, even though it sailed as close as Havana with its 1,128 refugeesfleeinghitler.theamericanmilitaryin1944declinedto bomb the death camps or the rail lines leading to them.these decisions (documented in the museum) have a contemporary resonance:bureaucratic cowardice and fecklessness, indifference, appeasement, denial, tribal intolerance and fanaticism, racial hatred. 73 Thisinterpretiveapproachisneitherneutralnorsubtle,andfurtherpushesthe socialagendaofthemuseum. 72 LennonandFoley,DarkTourism:TheAttractionofDeathandDisaster,151. 73 Washington, NeverForget. 43
Thetemporaryexhibits,theresearchcenterandthelibraryalsoadvance thesocialandeducationalagenda[figures2123].temporaryandtraveling exhibitionsarecommontoolsmuseumsusetoadvancethestorybeingtold. 74 Temporaryexhibitsincludeinformationaboutgenocidetoday,suchasthe DarfurregionofSudan.Themuseumalsoeducatesaboutparticularatrocities committedduringthewar.forexample,acurrentexhibittitled Deadly Medicine:CreatingtheMasterRace focusesontheracialcleansingtechniques employedbythenazis.theexhibitincludesobjects,photographs,documents, andhistoricfilmfootagefromeuropeanandamericancollectionsanddisplays theminsettingsevokingmedicalandscientificenvironments.othertemporary exhibitshaveaddressedtopicsincludingthepathsofamericanliberatorsand wellknownvictimsoftheholocaust,includingannefrank.suchtemporary exhibitskeepamuseumfromremainingstatic,andtheyaddacontemporary elementthathistoricsitesoftenlack.thisencouragesvisitorstomakerepeat 74 TheJapaneseAmericanNationalMuseum,TheMuseumofJewishHeritage,andtheMuseum oftoleranceallusetemporaryandtravelingexhibitsthatadvancethemissionofthemuseum andeducatepeoplewhomayotherwisenotseemuseumexhibitions.thejapaneseamerican NationalMuseumhastemporaryexhibitionstitled JapanafterPerry:ViewsofYokohamaand MeijiJapan, whichchroniclesthecityofyokohomaafterjapanopeneditsportstoamericaand Europe.TheMuseumofJewishHeritagehasspecialexhibitionscalled NewYorkCityof Refuge,StoriesfromtheLast60Years, whichgoesbeyondthejewishstorytoembraceall underprivilegedpeopleinthecityofnewyork,and KippurThreeWeeksinOctober, to educatethepublicaboutthejewishreligiousholiday.themuseumoftolerancehasvarious specialexhibitions,including FacesofSorrow:AgonyintheFormerYugoslavia and Stealing Home:HowJackieRobinsonChangedAmerica. JapaneseAmericanNationalMuseum website,www.janm.org,museumofjewishheritagewebsite,www.mjhnyc.org,museumof Tolerancewebsite,www.museumoftolerance.com. 44
visits,andtoconnectthehistoricstorybeingtoldtoeventshappeninginthe worldtoday. Onetemporaryexhibitprovedtobesopopularthatitbecamepermanent Daniel splace[figures2425]. Thisexhibitforchildren,designedwiththe inputofteachers,isintendedtotellthestoryoftheholocaustintermsthat childrencanunderstand.danielisacompositecharacter,compiledfromthe diariesofmanychildrenduringtheholocaust.asdescribedbyonereviewer, children walk through a series of interactive environments that illustrate what happened to Daniel and his family during the Holocaust in Germany, when they were sent from their home in Frankfurt,totheLodzghettoinPolandandfinallywhentheywere takentotheconcentrationcampatauschwitz ButDanielisnever pictured,norishegivenalastname. 75 Thegoaloftheexhibit,whichistravelingtodifferentcities,inthewords ofdirectorofexhibitionssusanw.morgenstein, istoengagechildrenand tellthestoryoftheholocaustinawaythatwasreal,withoutfrightening them. 76 Otherinterpretivetechniquesincludeexhibitsonthemuseum s website.manyhistoricsitesandmuseumstodayemployawebsitecomponent toenhancetheirinterpretiveprogram.theholocaustmuseumwebsitehasan extensivesectiononholocausteducation,includingaholocaustencyclopedia 75 SuzanneSlesin, ThroughaChild seyes,historyandtragedy, TheNewYorkTimes,3June 1993. 76 Slesin, ThroughaChild seyes,historyandtragedy. 45
andvariousotherresearchtoolsrelatingtotheholocaust.thistoolhasproven successfulatmanyhistoricsitesandmuseums,becauseitreachesanaudience beyondthesiteandcreateseducationalopportunitiesbeyondwhatstaffcando onlocation.bothtravelingexhibitionsandthewebsiteareintendedtoreachan audiencethatmaynotbeabletovisitthemuseum.exhibitsinclude Lifeinthe Shadows:HiddenchildrenandtheHolocaust, NaziPersecutionof Homosexuals,19331945, and MusicoftheHolocaust. 77 Manytemporary exhibitsaimtoberelevanttoproblemsintheworldtoday. ThefinalstopformanyinthemuseumistheHallofRemembrance. Situatedattheendofthepermanentexhibition,itisinstarkcontrasttotherest ofthemuseumspace.anewyorktimesarticlestates: TheHallofRemembrance,designedasaplacewherevisitorscan reflectafterseeingthepermanentexhibition,standsatthefarend ofabstraction.housedinasixsided,partlyfreestandingstructure attached to the main building, the hall occupies a plaza facing RaoulWallenbergPlace. 78 Thisspacewaspurposelydesignedtobedrasticallydifferentfromtherest ofthemuseum.inscriptionsonthewallsfurtherguidethevisitorexperience. QuotationsthatwerechosenfromtheBibleinclude: Onlyguardyourselfandguardyoursoul carefully,lestyouforgetthethings 77 UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumwebsite,www.ushmm.org. 78 Muschamp, ShapingaMonumenttoMemory. 46
youreyessaw,andlestthesethings departyourheartallthedaysofyourlife. Andyoushallmakethemknowntoyourchildren Andtoyourchildren schildren.(deuteronomy4:9) AnotherquotedealswiththeprimalmurderfromGenesis4:10, Whathaveyou done?hark,thybrother sbloodcriesouttomefromtheground! 79 These inscriptionswerecarefullychosenbecausetheywerereflectiveofthemissionto neverforget,andtheyillustratethelackofchoiceholocaustvictimshad. TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumanditsexhibitshaveone clearadvantagethathistoricsitesdonot.amuseumisacontrolled environment,witheverythingfromthearchitectureandlightingtotheflowof visitorsplannedinadvance.allmuseumshavethisadvantage,anditdirectly impactsthevisitorexperience.thisisespeciallytrueattheholocaustmuseum, whereanentirelynewbuildingwasdesignedtofitthetheme. AuthorAlisonLandsbergcommented: While its layout may not sound radically different from that of other museums, some structural differences are worthy of note. First of all, the visitor is at the mercy of the museum and must submitoneselftoitspaceanditslogic.thereisnowayoutshortof traversing the entire exhibit; one must wind one s way down all three floors.the architecture and exhibition design conspire to force each visitor to confront images and objects that might, in othermuseums,bewillfullyignored.secondly,thereareonlyfive 79 Linenthal,PreservingMemory:TheStruggletoCreateAmerica sholocaustmuseum,98. 47
places in the entire exhibit where visitors may sit down. The museum is physically and emotionally exhausting and yet insists thatonepersevereinthefaceofdiscomfort. 80 Historicsitesdonothavethesamecompletecontroloverthevisitorexperience. PartofthepoweroftheUnitedStatesHolocaustMuseumisthewayin whichinterpretationisusedtotouchemotionalandintellectualchordsin visitors.connectingwithpeopleonbothlevelshelpsensurethemissionofthe siteissuccessfullyconveyed.museumsfocusingontheseissuesarerelatively new,andtheirinterpretiveprogramsareoftenverycreative.partofthekeyto theunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseumssuccessisthatithasincluded bothcommemorativeandhistoricalperspectivesthatareclearlydelineated. Holocaustsurvivorsandhistoriansbothplayedasignificantrolein decisionsaboutthepermanentexhibition.forexample,whenitbecameclear that,outofrespectforsurvivors sensibilities,exhibitshadnotadequately portrayednazis atwork murderingjewsthat,ineffect,thedisplaysseemedto depictjewsbeingmurderedbyaninvisibleeviltheexhibitwasaltered. 81 Museumsthatcaneducatevisitorsandcausethemtoempathizethesubject matteraremoreeffectivethanmuseumsthatsucceedonlyatoneofthosetasks. 80 Landsberg, America,theHolocaust,andtheMassCultureofMemory:TowardaRadical PoliticsofEmpathy, 70. 81 EdwardT.Linenthal, CanMuseumsAchieveaBalancebetweenMemoryandHistory? The ChronicleofHigherEducation,10February1995. 48
ChapterFour:ManzanarNationalHistoricSite Traditionally,historicpreservationhasfocusedonpartsofthepastthat celebrateheroicordistinguishedchaptersinhistory.inrecentyears,however, shamefulperiodsofourhistoryhavebeguntoberecognizedathistoricsites. 82 AnthropologistPaulShackelstated Since the 1960s, the stories of minority groups have increasingly taken their place in our national story.many of these minority histories are about struggle, racism, and tragedy. One way to commemorate these stories and make them part of the national memoryistocreateamorallessonfromthesemisfortunes.many Americans continue to struggle with the commemoration of minorityhistories,whileminoritygroupsseetheircommemoration asvitalsinceitallowsthemtoclaimapartofthepublicmemory. 83 82 TheWomen srightsnationalhistoricalparkinsenecafalls,newyork.onjuly19,1848, ElizabethCadyStantonledthefirstWomen srightsconventioninsenecafalls,newyork.the parkconsistsoffourmajorhistoricalproperties,includingthewesleyanchapel,siteofthe convention,andastateoftheartvisitorcenter.authorbarbarameloshnotes thewomen s RightsNationalHistoricSiteisanimportantnewdeparture,asignificantcommitmentofpublic fund stowomen shistory.atthevisitors center,agoodexhibitandslideshownarratethe historyofthe1848senecafallsconvention,wherewomenexcludedfrompublicproceedingsof theantislaverymovementmettoconsidertheirconditionsaswomenandtoarticulatethe demandsofanewwomen srightsmovement.atourincludestherestoredelizabethcady StantonhouseandWesleyanChapel,wheretheconventionwasheld. Melosh, Speakingof Women:Museums RepresentationsofWomen shistory, 196. TheLowerEastSideTenementMuseum,locatedat97OrchardStreetinNewYorkCitywas createdtotellthestoriesofnineteenthandtwentiethcenturyimmigrants.themuseumhas20 apartmentsthathavebeenabandonedsince1935whenstricterhousingcodespromptedthe closingofthebuilding.themuseumopenedin1988,andpresentsthestoriesofformer inhabitants.themuseumstaffplanstoleavetwoapartmentsinastateofruinandrestoretwo apartmentsoneachfloor.theylefttheentryhallandthehallwaysoneachfloorastheyfound them,sincetherewasinsufficientphysicalevidenceoftheoriginalfabric.lowereastside TenementMuseum,ATenementStory:TheHistoryof97OrchardStreetandtheLowerEastSide TenementMuseum(NewYork:LowerEastSideTenementMuseum,1999),9,15. 83 Shackel,MemoryinBlackandWhite:Race,Commemoration,andthePostBellumLandscape,199. 49
Thepreviouschapterexaminedtheissueofinterpretingaprofoundeventinthe confinedspaceofamuseum.thischapterexaminestheinterpretivetechniques neededwhenthesiteofaneventexistsbutlacksvirtuallyanyoriginalhistoric fabric. ManzanarNationalHistoricSitewasoneoftenAmericanInternment Campsholdingatotalof120,000JapaneseAmericansduringWorldWarII.The majorityofthesepeoplewereamericancitizenswhowereforciblyremoved fromtheirhomesfollowingtheattackonpearlharbor.manzanar,locatedin easterncaliforniaatthebaseofthesierranevadamountains,wasthefirstcamp builtandhousedmorethan10,000japaneseamericansatitspeakin1942,nearly twothirdsofwhomwereamericancitizens. 84 Afterthelastinterneeleftthe campin1945,nearlyallofthebuildingsweredestroyedorshippedawaytobe usedsomewhereelse[figure26]. 85 Thefewremainingstructuressteadily deterioratedinthenearly50yearsthesitesatvacant.in1972,manzanarwas 84 Thefirst82interneesarrivedMarch21,1942.ByAprilupto1,000JapaneseAmericanswere arrivingeachdayandbymidjulythecamppopulationhadreached10,000people,anumber thatremainedsteadyuntiltheendofthewar. Bytheendof1944about6,000peopleremained, andthose,forthemostpart,weretheagingandtheyoung.whoeverhadprospectsonthe outside,andtheenergytogo,wasleaving,relocating,orenteringmilitaryservice.noonecould blamethem.tomostofthenisei,anythinglookedbetterthanremainingincamp.formanyof theirparents,justtheoppositewastrue. JeanneWakatsukiHoustonandJamesD.Houston, FarewelltoManzanar(Boston:HoughtonMifflinCompany,1973),104,JeffreyF.Burton,MaryM. Farrell,FlorenceB.Lord,andRichardW.Lord,ConfinementandEthnicity:AnOverviewof WorldWarIIJapaneseAmericanRelocationSites(NationalParkService,U.S.Departmentofthe Interior,1999),34. 85 OneofthemesshallswasshippedtonearbyBishopAirportandisgoingtobereturnedto Manzanar. 50
officiallyrecognizedforitshistoricvalue,whenthesitebecameacalifornia RegisteredHistoricLandmark.ThecampwasdesignatedaNationalHistoric Landmarkin1985,althoughformerprisonerswerenotofferedaformalapology until1988,whenpresidentronaldreagansignedintolawthecivilrightsact, whichauthorizeda$1.25billionsettlementtosurvivinginterneesortheirheirs. 86 ThecampwasmadeaNationalHistoricSitein1992 87 afterthenationalpark Servicedidanassessmentofalltenwarrelocationcentersanddetermined Manzanartobe thebestpreservedandhavethegreatestpotentialasanational parkunit. 88 Despitethewholesaledemolitionafter1945,Manzanarwas determinedtobethebestpreservedbecauseitstillcontainsremnantsofthe camp,includingpathsandsomestreets,buildingfoundations,andsomegarden features[figure27].itisintendedtoberepresentativeofallthewarrelocation Centers,thoughMinidokaInternmentNationalMonumentinIdahowascreated in2001. ExecutiveOrder9066,signedbyPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelton February19,1942,createdthe WarRelocationCenters. Thisactauthorizedthe SecretaryofWarto excludecitizensandaliensfromdesignatedareasalongthe 86 JaniceL.Dubel, RememberingaJapaneseAmericanConcentrationCampatManzanar NationalHistoricSite, inmyth,memory,andthemakingoftheamericanlandscape,ed.paul A.Shackel(Gainesville:UniversityPressofFlorida,2001),91 87 ManzanarNationalHistoricSiteunderPublicLaw(P.L.)102248. 88 NationalParkService,ManzanarNationalHistoricSiteGeneralManagementPlanand EnvironmentalImpactStudy,August1996. 51
PacificCoastinordertoprovidesecurityagainstsabotageandespionage. 89 JapaneseAmericansweregiven48hourstopackwhattheycouldbringwith themintwosuitcasesandreporttoacentrallocationtobeshippedtocamps locatedinremotespotsthroughoutthewest.theywerefirstsentontrains,some withblackedoutwindowsandpatrolledbyarmedguards,tointerimassembly camps,whichwerelocatedatracetracksandfairgrounds,wheretheylivedin horsestallsuntiltheirtransfertothepermanentinternmentcamps. 90 Within3 weeks,thefirstinterneeshadbeguntoarriveatmanzanar,tooccupythehastily builtbarracksmadeofwoodandtarpaper. ManzanarWarRelocationCenterwassituatedon6,000acresoflandin theowensvalley,approximately230mileseastoflosangeles.the500acre housingsectionwassurroundedbyeightguardtowerswithsearchlightsand barbedwirefencespatrolledbymilitarypolice[figure28].thecampwas intendedtobeentirelyselfsustaining,andthusincluded,outsidethehousing area,areservoir,sewagetreatmentplantandagriculturalfieldswhichthe interneesfarmed.the504barrackswerearrangedinto34blocks,witheach blockgenerallyconsistingof14barracks,men sandwomen spublictoiletsand showerstobesharedbytheentireblock,alaundryroomandamesshall.each 89 HarlanUnrau,TheEvacuationandRelocationofPersonsofJapaneseAncestryDuringWorldWarII: AHistoricalStudyoftheManzanarWarRelocationCenter(Denver:U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior, NationalParkService,1996),1:xxv. 90 Dubel, RememberingaJapaneseAmericanConcentrationCampatManzanarNational HistoricSite, 8889. 52
ofthebarrackswasdividedinto4rooms,witheightindividualsoccupyinga20 by25footroom.theroomswerefurnishedwithanoilstove,asinglehanging lightbulb,cots,blankets,andmattressesfilledwithstraw[figure29]. 91 Thecampalsoincludeda250bedhospital,BuddhistTemple,Catholic Church,cemetery,schools,policestations,barbershop,beautyparlor,general store,bank,auditorium,orphanage,andanewspaperknownasthemanzanar FreePress.Interneesbuiltparksandgardens,anoutdoortheaterandrecreational facilitiesincludinganineholegolfcourse[figure30]. 92 Internees,mostofwhomcamefromCaliforniaandWashington,were unpreparedfortheharshdesertconditions.summertemperaturesoften approached110 F,whilethewinterswerefrequentlybelowfreezing. JeanneWakatsukiHouston smemoirofheryearsspentatmanzanarasa child,farewelltomanzanar,describedthelivingconditionsdetainees encounteredwhentheyfirstarrivedatthecamp: AfterdinnerweweretakentoBlock16,aclusteroffifteenbarracks that had just been finished a day or so earlieralthough finished washardlythewordforit.theshackswerebuiltofonethickness of pine planking covered with tarpaper. They sat on concrete footings, with about two feet of open space between the floorboardsandtheground.gapsshowedbetweentheplanksand as the weeks passed and the green wood dried out, the gaps widened.knotholesgapedintheuncoveredfloor.eachbarracks 91 ManzanarNationalHistoricSitebrochure,2003. 92 DuaneNoriyuki, StoriesintheDust;Manzanarisaplaceoflongagomanyremembertoday. Butpreservingmemoriesisnoeasytask, LosAngelesTime,s31July2002. 53
wasdividedintosixunits,sixteenbytwentyfeet,aboutthesizeof alivingroom,withonebarebulbhangingfromtheceilingandan oil stove for heat.we were assigned two of these for the twelve peopleinourfamilygroup.wewereissuedsteelarmycots,two brown army blankets each, and some mattress covers, which my brothers stuffed with straw.it was bitter cold when we arrived, andthewinddidnotabate.alltheyhadtouseforroomdividers were those army blankets, two of which were barely enough to keeponepersonwarm theentiresituationthere,especiallyinthe beginningthepackedsleepingquarters,thecommunalmesshalls, theopentoiletsallthiswasanopeninsulttothatother,privateself, aslapinthefaceyouwerepowerlesstochallenge. 93 Inadditiontothehumiliationandpowerlessnessinterneesfelt,theyalsolost millionsofdollarsandmostoftheirpropertyasaresultoftheinternment. 94 BecauseJapaneseAmericansweregivenlittlenoticeoftheevacuation,some abandonedtheirproperty,andmanyhurriedlysoldpossessionsatgreatlosses. OnlyafewwereabletofindnonJapaneseAmericanfriendstocarefortheir housesandbusinessesduringthewar.whenmanyreturnedhomeafterthe war,thepossessionstheyhadstoredweremissing.whileatthecamps, interneeswerepaidbetween$12.00and$19.00permonth,dependingontheir skilllevel. 95 Formost,theirincomeswhileinternedwereinsufficienttomake paymentsonhouses,car,andboats,whichwerethenrepossessed. 93 HoustonandHouston,FarewelltoManzanar,1819,29. 94 ArthurG.Neal,NationalTraumaandCollectiveMemory:MajorEventsintheAmericanCentury (Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,Inc.,1998),68. 95 ManzanarNationalHistoricSitebrochure,2003. 54
AnumberofstakeholderswereinvolvedintheplanningofManzanar, rangingfromthejapaneseamericanstocivilrightsgroupsandthelocal community.japaneseamericanswhowereinternedwereespeciallysoughtfor theirinputonhowthesiteshouldbeinterpreted.thenationalparkservice encounteredintenseanimosityaboutdevelopmentofthesitefrommany differentfactions,includinglocalresidentsandveteransgroups;thefirst superintendent,rosshopkins,receiveddeaththreatsearlyinthedevelopment ofthesite. 96 AccordingtotheNationalParkService,aconcertedeffortwasmade tolistentoallsidesinvolvedsoastotellthecompletestory. OpinionsabouttheroleoftheNPSinmanagingand interpreting thesiterangefromsuggestionsthatthenpsneedstoserveasthe socialconscienceofthenationtocautionsthatthenpsnotbecome a grovelingsycophant tothejapaneseamericancommunity.to address the issue, the park sought diverse forums to engage the publicinthemanagementofthesite. 97 ThiswasdifferentthanthecommissioninvolvedattheUnitedStatesHolocaust MemorialMuseum,whichtookafarmoreexclusionaryapproach. OneofthefirstandmostcontentiousissuestheNationalParkService facedwasthenamingoftheproperty.ithasbeenvariouslycalledawar 96 ToddS.Purdum, U.S.StartstoDustOffaDarkSpotinHistoryforAlltoSee, NewYorkTimes, 20June1998. 97 FrankHays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Telling thestoryofmountains,valley,andbarbedwireatmanzanarhistoricsite, ThePublicHistorian: AJournalofPublicHistory,ed.AnnMariePlane,(SantaBarbara,CA:UniversityofCalifornia Press,2003),73. 55
relocationcenter,aninternmentcamp,andaconcentrationcamp.thislastterm causedanenormousamountofcontroversy. The National Park Service declared that concentration camp, the termmostcommonlyusedbynikkeiorganizationssuchasjacl, the Manzanar Committee, and the JapaneseAmerican National Museum, was unacceptable.in the words of then NPS Western Regional Director Stanley T. Albright, The term carries connotationsofgaschambersfortheexterminationofpeople.the term clearly does not apply to the relocation camps in which AmericansofJapaneseancestrywereinterned. 98 TheJapaneseAmericancommunitydidunderstandthatthetermhadtakenon newmeaningssinceworldwarii,concedingthat theuseofthewords concentrationcamps mayunderminethepreservationoftheuniquememories oftheholocaust.nisei 99 institutionshaveacknowledgedthispotential tension. 100 Theterm concentrationcamp isstillonaplaqueattheentranceto 98 JACL:JapaneseAmericanCitizensLeague,thenationsoldestandlargestAsianAmericancivil rightsorganization,wasfoundedin1929toaddressissuesofdiscriminationtargetedspecifically atpersonsofjapaneseancestryresidingintheunitedstates.japaneseamericancitizensleague website,www.jacl.org,milansimonich, JapaneseAmericansAwaitingMemorialtoInternment Camps, PittsburghPostGazette,15December,1996. 99 IsseiwerethefirstgenerationofJapanesetoimmigratetoAmerica.TheIsseiwerebornin Japan.MostofthemimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesbetween1890and1915.Niseiwerethe secondgeneration;thechildrenoftheissei.americancitizensbybirth,almostallniseiwere bornbeforethesecondworldwar.sanseiwerethethirdgenerationofamericanswithjapanese ancestry,mostofthembornduringorafterthesecondworldwar.(jeannewatatsukihouston, FarewelltoManzanar:ATrueStoryoftheJapaneseAmericanexperienceduringandaftertheWorldWar Internment,(NewYork:Bantam,1974),xxii.) 100 RobertT.Hayashi, TransfiguredPatterns:ContestingMemoriesattheManzanarNational HistoricSite, ThePublicHistorian,AJournalofPublicHistory,ed.AnnMariePlane,(Santa Barbara,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003),58. 56
thecampalthoughtheparkservicehasoptedtousetheterm warrelocation center initspublications[figure31].thetextontheplaquereads In the early part of World War II, 110,000 persons of Japanese ancestry were interned in relocation centers by Executive Order No.9066,issuedonFebruary19,1942.Manzanar,thefirstoften suchconcentrationcamps,wasboundedbybarbedwireandguard towers, confining 10,000 persons, the majority being American citizens. May the injustices and humiliation suffered here as a resultofhysteria,racismandeconomicexploitationneveremerge again. Sitemanagershavealsoaddressedtheissueontheopeningpanelinthe interpretiveexhibit,wherealltermsforthecamparelisted[figure32]. OtherconcernsfacingthedevelopmentofthesiteasaNationalHistoric Siteincludedfundingandalackofartifactstointerpret.Whenthecampwas initiallydesignatedanationalhistoricsitein1992,itlackedthefundingneeded forrestoration.in2000,fourmilliondollarswasallocatedbytheclinton administrationforthepreservationofjapaneseinternmentinternmentsites,the majoritygoingtomanzanar. 101 ThisisinstarkcontrasttotheUnitedStates HolocaustMemorialMuseum,whichwasbuiltusingprivatedonationsalthough themuseumisapublic/privatepartnership,runbyacommissioncreatedbya federalagency. 101 Hayashi, TransfiguredPatterns:ContestingMemoriesattheManzanarNationalHistoric Site, 70. 57
Thelackofphysicalfabrichaspresentedaninterpretivechallengeforthe NationalParkService.Manzanarisalargehistoricsite;thefederalgovernment originallyleased6,200acresfromthelosangelesdepartmentofwaterand Powertocreatetheinternmentcamp,anditstillownstheland.Today,the historicsiteincludesonlythe500acrehousingsectionoftheoriginal6,200acres, withinwhichaninterpretivecenterislocated.thenationalparkservice cataloguedwhatremainsatmanzanarinitsreportconfinementandethnicity:an OverviewofWorldWarIIJapaneseAmericanRelocationSites Only three of the over 800 buildings originally at the relocation centerremain.however,thereisabundantevidenceofrelocation center features, including walls, foundations, sidewalks, steps, manholes,sewerandwaterlines,landscapingfeatures,ditches,and trash concentrations. Much of the relocation center road grid remains,butmanyoftheroadsinthewesternthirdareburiedby alluvium or overgrown with vegetation.other roads are cut by gullies and major portions of two roads (1 st and 7 th Streets) have beendestroyedbygullyerosion.byfarthemostprevalentartifact types at the site are window and bottle glass fragments and wire nails.however, a tremendous variety of artifacts dating to the relocationcenterusearescatteredacrossthecentralarea. 102 TheJapaneseAmericancommunityfeltitveryimportanttorebuildsome ofthebuildingsthathadbeenhere, toensurethatvisitorsgainasenseof historyandplace. 103 ThoughtheNationalParkServicegenerallyfrownson 102 Burtonetal,ConfinementandEthnicity,chapter8. 103 Hays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Tellingthe StoryofMountains,Valley,andBarbedWireatManzanarHistoricSite, 75. 58
reconstruction,believingit representsthealternativewiththeleasthistoric authenticityandisdefinedas thedepictionofoneperiodinhistoryusingnew materialsbasedonarchaeologyandotherresearchfindings, 104 thedirectorof theparkservice,whoseapprovalofreconstructionwasinfact,required,agreed thatcertainelementsshouldbebuiltbecausetheywereessentialtothetellingof thestoryatmanzanar.theparkservice sstandardsonreconstructionasstated inits2001managementpoliciesare: No matter how well conceived or executed, reconstructions are contemporary interpretations of the past rather than authentic survivalsfromit.thenationalparkservicewillnotreconstructa missingstructureunless[fourcriteriaaremet].thesecriteriaareas follows: (1) there is no alternative that would accomplish the park sinterpretivemission,(2)thereissufficientdatatoenablean accurate reconstruction, (3) the reconstruction occurs on the original location, and (4) the NPS director approves the reconstruction. 105 InthecaseofManzanar,sinceverylittlefabricexists,itwasdeterminedin theplanningprocesstobeimportanttoreconstructcertainelementssoasto accuratelyportraythestoryofjapaneseamericaninternment.theinterpretive missionatmanzanaris: ManzanarNationalHistoricSitepreservesthestoriesandresources of Manzanar for this and future generations.we will facilitate a 104 Hays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Tellingthe StoryofMountains,Valley,andBarbedWireatManzanarHistoricSite, 75. 105 Hays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Tellingthe StoryofMountains,Valley,andBarbedWireatManzanarHistoricSite, 7576. 59
parkexperiencethatweavesthestoriesofthevariousoccupations of Manzanar faithfully, completely, and accurately. Manzanar National Historic Site will provide leadership for the protection and interpretation of associated sites.from this foundation, the park will stimulate and provoke a greater understanding of, and dialogueoncivilrights,democracy,andfreedom. 106 Thus,thesentrypostsatthecampentrancehavebeenreconstructed,with theassociatedsignpost[figures3334].thebarbedwirefencesurroundingthe campwasalsoreconstructed,andreconstructionofthehousingbarracksis underway. 107 Inthefuture,alatrinebuildingandaguardtowerwillalsobe reconstructed. 108 Oneprobleminterpretersencounteristhatvisitorsseethebeautyofthe siteandcannotunderstandwhypeoplemindedbeinginternedthere. SuperintendentFrankHaysstated, WhenvisitorsarriveatManzanartoday, theycanbesoinspiredbythelocation sbeautythattheymisstheimportant 106 FrankHays,Superintendent,ManzanarNationalHistoricSite,interviewbyauthor,4March 2005. 107 ThestaffattheLowerEastSideTenementMuseuminNewYorkCityfacedasimilardilemma aboutreconstruction.themuseum,ahistorictenementstructure,wasinruinswhenitwas acquiredtobeusedasamuseum.thestaffhadtodecidewhethertoleavethestructureinits currentstateorrestoretheapartmentstotheiroriginalstate.theydecidedtorestoresome apartmentsandleaveothersastheywerefound.themuseumtellsthestoriesoffamilies throughoutthehistoryoftheapartmentcomplex.thegumpertzfamily,immigrantsfrom Germany,livedinthebuildingin1878;theRogarshevskyfamily,EasternEuropeanJews, occupiedtheirapartmentin1910;theconfinos,sephardicjewsfromturkeylivedtherebetween 1913and1916;theBaldizzifamilyfromSicily,wholivedinthetenementfromthelate1920suntil 1935whenthebuildingclosed,andtheLevinefamily,wholivedinthebuildingattheturnofthe twentiethcenturyandoperatedagarmentfactoryintheirhome.sitevisitbyauthor,july2004. 108 Hays,interview. 60
storytoldthere. 109 Sitemanagershopethatreconstructingessentialelementsof thecampwillhelpillustratetheconditionsunderwhichpeoplelived.becauseof thesizeoftheoriginalcamp,visitorsmaystillhavetroubleunderstandingthe fullscopeofthecampwiththefewstructuresbeingreconstructed,thoughthe ParkServicehasnointentiontorebuildasignificantportionofthecamp. Sitemanagersfeltthatinadditiontothereconstructionofcertain buildings,aninterpretivecenterwasimperativetothetellingofthestory[figure 35].TheyworkedwiththeexhibitplanningfirmKristerOlmonDesignandat thenationalparkservice sinterpretivedesigncenteratharper sferry.the designers,workingwiththestaffatmanzanar,feltthatitwasimperativetotell boththestoryofthejapaneseinterment,andthelayersofhistoryatthesite. Thisaspectofthestorywasveryimportanttothelocalcommunitystakeholders becauseitillustratesapatternofdisplacementthathasoccurredatthesite.asa localresidentstated: webelievethesiteshouldbeinterpretedinitsentirety.nobody has mentioned that Manzanar means apple orchards.there are appleorchards.theywereapartofthecounty sfarmingindustry yearsandyearsago,anditisanativeamericansite.sowewould like to see that the site is interpreted in its entirety with Native Americans,theJapanesethatwereinternedthere,andthefarming interestsofthecounty. 110 109 Hays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Tellingthe StoryofMountains,Valley,andBarbedWireatManzanarHistoricSite, 7475. 110 InyoCountyAssistantCountyAdministratorPaulMorrisonatasubcommitteehearing,in RobertT.Hayashi, TransfiguredPatterns:ContestingMemoriesattheManzanarNational HistoricSite, 53. 61
Thoughsuchinsights,relocationemergedasanoverridingthemeatthe interpretivecenter.nativeamericanpaiutetribesoriginallysettledtheland nearly10,000yearsagobeforetheywereforcedoffbywhitesettlers.manzanar thendevelopedasanagriculturalsettlement,wherefarmersgrewvarious productsinthevalley.thelosangelesdepartmentofwaterandpower uprootedthesesettlerswhenitbeganacquiringwaterrightsinthevalleyforthe cityoflosangelesintheearlytwentiethcentury.finally,theabandoned settlementwasleasedtothegovernmentasacentertoholdjapaneseamericans duringworldwarii. 111 ThoughthestoryoftheJapaneseinternmentisclearly thestorygiventhemostweight,interpretivepanelsexplaintheotherusesofthe siteandparkservicebrochuresalsomentiontheotherdisplacedgroups[figure 36]. Theinterpretivecenterishousedintheauditorium,theonlyremaining buildingfromtheinternmentcamp.itwasextensivelyrenovatedwhenthepark ServiceacquiredthesiteandopenedinApril,2004,andhasmetwithnear universalsuccess.in2004sitemanagersconductedavisitorsurvey,theresults ofwhichhavenotcomeback,butfeedbackappearstobepositive. 112 The interpretivecenterusesobjectstotellthestoryofjapaneseamericaninternment, 111 ManzanarNationalHistoricSitebrochure,2003. 112 Hays,interview. 62
includingreconstructedelementsofthecampinthebuilding(whiletheunited StatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumgenerallyusedoriginals,Manzanarrelieson somereproductions),includingabarrackswithcots,blankets,andfurniture,and areconstructedwatchtower.thereisalsoareconstructedbarbedwirefenceand ascalemodelofthecampasitlookedasawarrelocationcenter[figure37].the exhibitincludespanelsabouttheracismjapaneseamericansencountered before,duringandafterthewar,togetherwithpicturesandartifacts.asisthe casewiththeunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseum sapproachtothe historyofjewishpeople,aneffortismadetotellamorecompletestoryaboutthe JapaneseAmericancommunity,beyondtheperiodoftheirinternment.Thiswas particularlyimportanttostakeholdersofjapaneseamericandescent. Theexhibitusespanels,photographs,andartifactstotellthestoryof Manzanar.Photographsillustratethelivespeopleledwhilethere,including working,schooling,andrecreationalactivitiessuchasdances.interneeswere notallowedtotakephotographswhileatthecamp,thoughsomeinternees smuggledcamerasin,andphotographerswhovisited,includinganseladams, werenotpermittedtoshowanynegativeaspect,suchasguardtowersand barbedwire,sophotographsoftheseaspectsofcamplifearescarce. 113 Thisalso ledtoabeliefamongsomepeoplethatinterneeswerenotheldthereagainsttheir 113 MartinForstenzer, BitterFeelingsStillRunDeepatCamp, LosAngelesTimes4August1996. 63
will,asalettertothelocalhistorymuseuminnearbyindependence,california proves.thewriterdemandedthatmanzanarbeportrayednotasaprisoncamp, butasaguesthousingcenterforthejapaneseamericans. 114 Theinterpretivecenteralsoincludesalargepanelwiththenamesofall thepeopleinternedatmanzanar,andflagsfromalltenwarrelocationcenters [Figures3839].TherearealsopanelsdescribingtheJapaneseAmericanswho servedinworldwarii,andartifactsincludingtheiruniforms[figure40].the interpretivecentercontainsindividualizedexhibits,describingparticular detainees,tohelpvisitorsconnectwiththesiteonamorepersonallevel,a techniquealsousedbytheunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseum.the apologyandredressissuedtojapaneseamericansarecoveredinanexhibit panel.theinterpretivecenteralsofeaturesamovieabouttheinternment.the exhibitalsoincludesinformationaboutothercivilrightsissues,fromthe strugglesofafricanamericansinthe1950stotheaftermathofseptember11, 2001,whichtiesthestruggleofJapaneseAmericanstothefightforequalrights ofotherminoritygroups[figure41]. Theinterpretivecenter,whileeffectiveintellingthestoryoftheJapanese Americaninternmentisessentiallytheonlythingforvisitorstoseebecausethe sitehaslittleremainingphysicalfabric.parksuperintendentfrankhaysstated 114 RobertA.Jones, WhitewashingManzanar, LosAngelesTimes,10April1996. 64
ThefirstchallengeatManzanaristoprovideanadequatecontext within which the public can be engaged in a discussion of social issues related to the internment of JapaneseAmericans. The ManzanarNationalHistoricSiteischaracterizedbyanabundance ofsagebrushanddust;onlyafewremnantsofthecamparevisible. Withoutphysicalreminders,itisdifficulttoexplaintovisitorsthat thiswasindeedaninternmentcamp. 115 Parkstaffacknowledgedtheproblem,andunderstandthatuntilpiecesofthe camparereconstructed,theymustrelyontheinterpretivecentertotellthestory. Aselfguideddrivingtourthroughoutthecampincludeswaysideexhibits showingwherevariousbuildingsoncestood.thevisitorisfreetowalkaround, andinsomeplacesremnantsofthecampcanstillbeseen.nationalparkservice historianjerryl.rogersnoted: YoucanveryclearlyseeatManzanarthe outlineofthecampwithinwhichpeoplewereinterned.thestreetpatternis clear.thereareremnantsfoundations,sidewalks,andsoforthofbuildingsthat oncestoodthere. 116 Apond,steps,andthecemetery,withsixremaininggraves, stillexist.theinterpretiveexperiencewillbemuchmoreeffectivewhenallthat isplannedisinplace.parkstaffgiveguidedtourstoschoolgroups,alongwith programsandacurriculumtheyhavedeveloped.thedrivingtourdoeshelpto givethevisitorasenseofthesizeofmanzanar. 115 Hays, TheNationalParkService:GrovelingSycophantorSocialConscience:Tellingthe StoryofMountains,Valley,andBarbedWireatManzanarHistoricSite, 74. 116 Hayashi, TransfiguredPatterns:ContestingMemoriesattheManzanarNationalHistoric Site, 58. 65
However,thebeautyofthesiteissomethingparkstaffwillalwayshaveto contendwith.whenstandingatthebaseofmountwhitney,itishardto imaginewhythisplacegrievedsomanypeople. CreatingahistoricsitethathighlightsashamefulchapterinAmerica s pastissomethingrelativelynewtothenationalparkservice.in1935,thechief historianforthenationalparkservicedescribedtheorganization sinterpretive missionas torecreatefortheaveragecitizensomethingofthecolor,pageantry, andthedignityofournationalpast. 117 TherolethattheParkServiceplayshas changedconsiderablyinthepast70years.recentlyauthorizednationalpark sitessuchasthetrailoftearsnationalhistorictrail,authorizedin1987,which runsthoughalabama,arkansas,georgia,illinois,kentucky,missouri,north Carolina,Oklahoma,andTennesee;theAndersonvilleNationalHistoricSitein Andersonville,authorizedin1970,Georgia;andtheBrownvBoardofEducation NationalHistoricSite,inTopeka,Kansas,authorizedin1992,allcommemorate shamefulperiodsinamericanhistory.theparkservicehasalsoreevaluated storiestoldatoldersites,inparticularaccountsofslaveryatplacessuchas IndependenceNationalHistoricSite.IninterpretingManzanarNationalHistoric Site,theParkServicecommemoratesoneofAmerica smostshamefulperiods, thecompletesuspensionofthecivillibertiesofamericancitizensandtheir 117 MichaelKammen,MysticChordsofMemory:TheTransformationofTraditioninAmericanCulture, (NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,Inc.,1991),465. 66
familieswhoweresingledoutsolelybecauseoftheirrace.addressingthe NationalParkService scommemorationofsitesofshame,professorrobin WinksofYaleUniversitynoted: WiththerecentadditionofManzanarNationalHistoricSitetothe National Park System, the public has been introduced more dramaticallythaneverbeforetoafundamentaldebate.shouldthe nationalparkscommemorateandprotectonlyplacesandeventsin whichwetakepride,orshouldtheparksstrivetomarkeventsand placesthatmanyagreerepresentshamefulepisodesinournational experience? Each of the 367 units of the National Park System has a unique mission, and each is to be interpreted so that visitors may comprehend the mission and attain a better understanding of Americanheritage Educationisbestdonewithexamples.These examples must include that which we regret, that which is to be avoided,aswellasthatforwhichwestrive Ifthisiscorrect,we cannotomitthenegativelessonsofhistory. 118 WiththecreationofManzanar,theNationalParkServicecontinuesto fulfillitsmissionofcivicengagement.theparkserviceseekstoengagethe publicinitsmissionthough aninstitutionalcommitmenttoactivelyinvolve communitiesinourmissionthoughthepublicplanningprocess,ininterpretive andeducationalprogramming,anddirectlyinpreservingsignificant resources. 119 ThestaffatManzanarhaveinvolvedthepublicineverypartofthe planningprocess,andcontinuetocarryoutcivicengagementthroughanumber 118 RobinWinks, SitesofShame, NationalParks68(March/April1994):22. 119 Director sorder75a:civicengagementandpublicinvolvement,nationalparkservice,17 November1993. 67
ofpublicpartnerships.theyworkwiththejapaneseamericannational MuseuminLosAngeles,theEasternCaliforniaMuseuminIndependence, California,andthe FriendsofManzanar, anonprofitorganizationraising fundsforacapitalcampaignforthesite.thestaffalsoworkswithagroupof innercitystudentsfromlosangeleswhovisittheparkevery6weekstohelp cleanthesite.accordingtofrankhays,thishashelpedthesestudents,manyof whomareminorities,connectwitharangeofcivilrightsissues. 120 Thisisan importantaspectoftheinterpretationofthesite,because Interpretationcannot existwithoutastronglinktothepublicsitserves. 121 Thestaffisengagingthe publicandencouragingthemtomakeemotionalconnectionstothestorybeing told. ThoughManzanarhasfarfewervisitorsthantheUnitedStatesHolocaust MemorialMuseum,bothsitessharesimilarvisitorstatistics;theirvisitorscome fromabroadrangeofbackgroundsandarenotrestrictedtopeoplewhohavea directconnectiontothestorybeingtold.thelowerattendancenumberscanbe attributedinparttothelackofaccesstothesite,asopposedtotheprominent locationjustoffthemallinwashingtond.c.manzanarwaspurposelylocated inaremotearea,andittakesjustover3hourstoreachthesitefromlosangeles, 120 Hays,interview. 121 DonaldR.Field, ANewMandateforInterpretation, ininterpretiveviews:opinionson EvaluatingInterpretationintheNationalParkService,edGaryE.Machlis(WashingtonD.C.: NationalParksandConservationAssociation,1986),115. 68
sovisitorsmustgooutoftheirwaytogetthere.manzanar,averaged57,378 visitorsin2003 122 ;theyincludeschoolgroups,peopleinterestedinthejapanese Americanstory,individualsjustlikeNationalParks,andpeoplewhoaresimply passingby. 123 Interestingly,visitorsstayfarlongerthantheparkstafforiginally anticipated.onaverage,peoplespend45minutestoonehourintheinterpretive centeralone.thisphenomenon,whichwasalsoseenattheunitedstates HolocaustMemorialMuseum(visitorsstayedanaverageof3hours),raisesan interestingquestion.whatisitaboutthesesitesthatdrawspeoplein?perhaps itisthesubjectmatterandtheindividualstoriestoldthatcreatessuchinterest. Theinterpretationofhumanandcivilrightsstrugglesisrelativelynew,andthe emotionalcontentofthestoriesmayallowpeopletoconnectinaverydifferent waythantheydotothestoriesofgreatmenorheroicbattles.daviduzzellhas arguedthat Interpretationisnomoreimmunefromthecontradictionsinherent inpublicattitudesandvaluesthananyotherareaofcontemporarysociety. Emotionplaysanimportantpartincoloringourattitudesandactionsandis 122 Incontrast,Women srightsnationalhistoricalparkreceivesseventeenthousandvisitorsa year,theusualattendanceforparksinlocationslikesenecafalls.melosh, SpeakingofWomen: Museums RepresentationsofWomen shistory, 197. 123 Hays,interview. 69
centraltotheveryhumanqualitiesofaffection,conscience,humanityand compassion. 124 TheimpactoftheManzanarstoryhasbecamemorerelevantinthewake oftheseptember11,2001terroristattacksinamerica.thenationalmood followingthe2001attacksechoedthatfollowingpearlharbor.morepublicity wasgiventomanzanarandthepossiblelossofcivillibertiesforarabamericans wascomparedtotheplightofjapaneseamericansinthe1940 s.anarticlein thenewyorktimeshighlightedthisissue. TheBushadministration sproposalsforincreasedlawenforcement powersinfightingterrorismareprovokingadebateaboutwhether American courts would repeat the kinds of rulings that restricted the civil rights of JapaneseAmericans during World War II.Among the most controversial of the administration s proposalsareseveralthatwouldgiveimmigrantswhoaredetained in the terror investigation limited opportunities to get their cases heard in court.though a blanket detention of ArabAmericans now appears politically implausible, some legal experts say the reasoningofthe1942rulingcouldpermitlimitsoncivillibertiesof ArabimmigrantsandevensomeAmericansofArabdescent. 125 InterpretationatManzanarismademoresuccessfulbecausepeoplecanlinkthe treatmentofjapaneseamericansdirectlytosomethingthatistakingplacetoday. ThistechniqueisalsousedattheHolocaustMuseumwhenlinkingthegenocide ofeuropeanjewstogenocidesthataretakingplaceinothercountriestoday. 124 Uzzell, Interpretingourheritage:atheoreticalinterpretation, 13. 125 WilliamGlaberson, WaronTerrorismStirsMemoryofInternment, NewYorkTimes,24 September2001. 70
LiketheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum,theNationalPark ServicehasawebsiteatManzanarthatincludesaneducationalcomponent,as wellasanonline exhibit showingimagesfromthesite.theparkstaffwould liketoimproveontheeducationalcomponent. ThestaffatManzanarhasprovidedaninterpretiveexperiencethattells thecompletestoryofmanzanarthroughavarietyoftechniques.staffmembers feltthatthestorywouldnotbecompletewithouttheadditionoftheinterpretive center,justasstaffattheunitedstatesholocaustmemorialmuseumfeltit necessarytoincludeasmanyhistoricsiteelements(arecastingofthewarsaw ghettowall,therailcar,thebunkfromauschwitz)aspossibletotransportpeople awayfromthemallandintothecampsofeurope.thetrendofhistoricsitesand museumstoincorporateelementsfromeachenvironmentisincreasing,andis oftenmosteffectivetogivevisitorselementsfromboth,aswellaseducational components,suchasresearchfacilitiesandlibraries.usingdifferentinterpretive techniquescanallowpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundstoascribetheirown meaningtothesite,asauthorpaulshackeldescribes: Memories can be public as well as private, and they serve to legitimize the past and the present. Public history exhibits, monuments, statues, artifacts, national historic parks, commemorations, and celebrations can foster myths that create a commonhistory,allowingfordivergentgroupstofindacommon bond. 126 126 Shackel,MemoryinBlackandWhite,179. 71
Bycraftingenvironmentswherepeoplecreatemultiplepathstowardstheirown connectionstothestory,theimpactonvisitorswillbemorelastingand profound. 72
Conclusion Historicsitesandmuseums,particularlythosememorializingless celebratedchaptersinhistory,useavarietyoftechniquestoconveytheir message.increasinglythesesitesandinstitutionsare borrowing interpretive elementsfromeachothertogivethevisitorthemostcompleteexperience.both historicsitesandmuseumsservetoeducatepeopleaboutimportanteventsin history,andtheyhavegraduallyacknowledgedthestoriesofunderprivilegedor minoritygroups.psychologistdaviduzzellnoted, themuseumand interpretivecentercanbeseenasaplacewherepeoplecometounderstand themselves.ifmuseumsandotherheritagesitesaretobesociallymeaningful thentheywillbeaboutthevisitor. 127 Thepublicisclearlydrawntositesthat memorializethesepartsofourhistory.thesestoriesconnectwithpeopleona levelnotoftenseenattypicalhistoricsites. Museumsmusttellastoryrelyingmainlyonartifacts,butmanyuselarge scaleartifactsandevencreatedenvironmentsforthevisitorthatresemblesthe siteitself.similarly,thesamehistoricsitesareincreasinglyrelyingon interpretivecenterstogivethevisitorabettersenseofthehistorythatunfolded there.bothmuseumsandhistoricsitesservetofurtherpublicknowledgeabout 127 Uzzell, Interpretingourheritage:atheoreticalinterpretation, 16. 73
thestorybeinginterpretedandtoengagethevisitoronanintellectualand emotionallevel.authorgeorgeb.robinsonhasstated Ifoneoftheprincipal objectivesofinterpretationisthecreationofperpetuationofenvironmentally soundculturalnorms,and,ifculturalnormsarethecollectiveexpressionof commonvalues,thenitcanbesaidthatinterpretationisaprocessofvaluesof clarification.itisconcernedwithmakingwordsandactionsconsistentwith beliefs. 128 Avarietyofinterpretivetechniquesareusedtoinspirethoughtinthe visitor,includingartifacts,photographs,andfirstpersonaccounts. Amuseumisacontrolledenvironment,andeverythinginit,includingthe buildingitself,canbeusedtoguidethevisitor.however,ahistoricsitehasan invaluable senseofplace thatallowspeopletoconnecttothesiteitself.each cangivethevisitoramemorableexperiencethroughinterpretation. Interpretationthattakesalessneutralapproachisoftenmorepowerful,because itusesprovocativematerialtocapturethevisitor sattention. Sitesmemorializingshamefulhistorieshaveadditionalpressures.They runtheriskofbecomingsensationalized,aswellaspressurefromsurvivorsasto howthesiteshouldbeinterpreted.staffatthesesitesmayalsoencounter visitorswhodonotevenbelievethattheeventtookplace.thestoriestoldat thesesitesmustbeabletoadapttonewgenerationswhomaynotmakethesame 128 Robinson,JudgementoftheChild:ABriefPolemic, 50. 74
emotionalconnectionthatcurrentgenerationsdo.authorsdaviduzzelland RoyBallantynenoted: Astimeseparatesusfrompasteventsouremotional engagementisreduced.doesthetimeperiodseparatingeventsaffectour decisionsregardingthepresentationofinformation,emotionalreactionand issuesoftaste? 129 Itisimportantthatinterpretationremainrelevantlongafter survivorsaregone. Interpretationisanimportantcomponentathistoricsitesandmuseums, becauseitisthebasisbywhichvisitorsshapetheirexperience.sociologistpaul Shackelsaid Frequentlythereisnooneagreedoninterpretationforthe historicallandscapesandmonumentsofamerica.theyhavedifferentmeanings fordifferentpeople,anditisthestruggleforcontrolovermeaningthatmakes theamericanhistoricallandscapesodynamicandinteresting. 130 TheUnitedStatesHolocaustMuseumandManzanarNationalHistoric Siteuseinterpretationtoprovideapowerfulexperienceforthevisitor.Through avarietyoftechniques,eachsitesimultaneouslyeducatesandmakesan emotionalconnectionwithpeople. 129 UzzellandBallantyne, Heritagethathurts:interpretationinapostmodernworld, 158. 130 Shackel,MemoryinBlackandWhite,173. 75